Ballast Water Management Convention Research Articles

Using biophysical modelling and marine connectivity to assess the risk of natural dispersal of non-indigenous species to comply with the Ballast Water Management Convention

AbstractThe introduction of Marine Non-Indigenous Species (NIS) poses a significant threat to global marine biodiversity and ecosystems. To mitigate this risk, the Ballast Water Management Convention (BWMC) was adopted by the UN International Maritime Organisation (IMO), setting strict criteria for discharges of ballast water. However, the BWMC permits exemptions for shipping routes operating within a geographical area, known as a Same-Risk-Area (SRA). An SRA can be established in areas where a risk assessment (RA) can conclude that the spread of NIS via ballast water is low relative to the predicted natural dispersal. Despite the BWMC's requirement for RAs to be based on modelling of the natural dispersal of NIS, no standard procedures have been established. This paper presents a methodology utilizing biophysical modelling and marine connectivity analyses to conduct SRA RA and delineation. Focusing on the Kattegat and Øresund connecting the North Sea and Baltic Sea, we examine two SRA candidates spanning Danish and Swedish waters. We provide an example on how to conduct an RA including an RA summary, and addressing findings, challenges, and prospects. Our study aims to advance the development and adoption of consistent, transparent, and scientifically robust SRA assessments for effective ballast water management.

Examining effects of sample concentration on estimates of live phytoplankton abundance

With the entry into force of the International Maritime Organization's International Ballast Water Management Convention in September 2017, ships have begun to install and operate onboard ballast water management systems (BWMS) to reduce the number of live organisms in ballast water. Scientific methods were developed to assess the effectiveness of BWMS at reducing the number of live organisms in ballast water. However, detecting low organism concentrations in treated ballast water is challenging when considering the small sample volume (6 mL) analyzed for organisms in the 10–50 μm size class. The volume analyzed can be increased by concentrating the sample prior to analysis, but it is important to assess the effects of the sample concentration method due to potential cell loss experienced during the concentration step. Therefore, laboratory experiments were conducted to assess the effects of a gravity filtration method to concentrate samples to a factor of 40:1. Experiments were conducted for both low and high organism abundances. For unpreserved samples at low organism abundances (~10 cells mL−1), concentrated samples had on average 31% fewer live cells mL−1 than unconcentrated samples for four out of five experiments. At high organism abundances (≥ 120 cells mL−1), unpreserved concentrated samples had on average 55% fewer live cells than unconcentrated samples. Alternatively, with preserved samples at low organism abundances, concentrated samples had on average 4.5× more cells than unconcentrated samples. At high organism abundances, concentrated samples had on average 6.4× more cells than unconcentrated samples. Differences were also observed between preserved and unpreserved samples. These findings can help to improve ballast water monitoring procedures and BWMS assessments, addressing a critical challenge to maritime environmental protection.

Biological testing of ships’ ballast water indicates challenges for the implementation of the Ballast Water Management Convention

Ships’ ballast water and sediments are vectors that contribute to the unintentional spread of aquatic non-native species globally. Ballast water management, as well as commissioning testing of ballast water management systems and compliance monitoring under the regulations of the International Maritime Organization (IMO) aim at minimizing the unwanted spread of organisms. This study compiles data for treated ballast water samples collected and analyzed from 228 ships during 2017–2023. The samples were collected from the ballast discharge line or directly from the ballast tank for enumeration of living organism concentrations in the categories of ≥50µm and <50 to ≥10µm -sized organisms, as well as indicator microbes in comparison to the ballast water performance standard of the IMO (Regulation D-2). In addition, several ship-specific factors were examined to infer potential factors affecting compliance rates. Nearly all ships were compliant with the ballast water performance standard for indicator microbes and <50 to ≥10µm -sized organisms, whereas almost half of all samples exceeded the limit of ten viable organisms m-3 for the ≥50µm -sized organisms. Compliance testing results did not differ significantly between sampling years, indicating that compliance rate did not change through time. The rate of compliance was higher for commissioning testing than compliance testing. Clear ship- or system-specific factors that lead to compliance or non-compliance were not detected, even though type of ballast water management system, filter mesh size associated with the system and source of ballast water affected compliance significantly either for the samples taken from the discharge line, or ballast tank. As compliance did not improve significantly over time, compliance testing of ships’ ballast water should be undertaken to ensure that the systems remain operational after commissioning and ships meet requirements of the D-2 standard. Furthermore, the study outcomes promote further research on the efficiency of filter mesh sizes and different filtration units associated with ballast water management systems, to improve mechanical removal of larger organisms. Finally, as several ships exceeded the compliance limit by hundreds or thousands of living organisms, technological advancements and operational measures may be needed to improve the overall reliability of ballast water management.

‘Challenges and Regulatory Precautionary Approach of Flag States in Implementing Obligations Under the Ballast Water Management Convention’

Increasing shipping activities necessitated by an upsurge in international trading has a resultant impact on the marine ecosystem. Apart from the usual incidences of marine pollution and oil spillages, the introduction and transfer of invasive alien species (IAS), often known as harmful aquatic organisms and pathogens (HAOP), are increasing and impacting marine ecosystems and biological diversities. In realization of these threats, at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), the International Maritime Organization (IMO) was requested to consider the adoption of appropriate rules on ballast water discharge based on the understanding that ships’ ballast water serves as a pathway for such bio-invasion transfer. Responding to these challenges led to the adopting of several regulations, technical guidelines, and rules, including the Ballast Water Management Convention in 2004. Hence, implementing the Convention has several implications for the existing legal regimes on flag states. The Convention and its Guidelines are complex and technical, coupled with a differential approach to ballast water management (BWM) by non-state parties like the U.S. Therefore, this research paper analyses some of the challenges and precautionary regulatory approaches for flag states in implementing the Convention while carrying out their obligations under the Convention. It concluded by suggesting a reflection of universally acceptable and environmentally friendly standards for ballast water management and treatment for containing the increasing prevalence of bio-invasion in the marine ecosystem.

Study on Ship Ballast Water Treatment Methods

With the rise of the world's maritime industry, the ecological and environmental concerns produced by ballast water discharges from ships are growing more and more significant, and can be hazardous to marine ecosystems, the marine economy, and human health. The ballast water management (BWM) convention from the International Maritime Organization (IMO) sets the rules for ballast water discharge and the two methods of ballast water exchange and ballast water treatment. Common types of ballast water management technology are introduced in this paper and the pros and cons of specific types of technology are explained. The research of this paper demonstrates that it is difficult for a single ballast water treatment system to achieve the D-2 discharge standard established in the BWM. More and more countries are increasingly supporting more efficient and environmentally friendly ballast water combination treatment systems. This paper may offer a reference for the development of ballast water treatment technology.

The Student Officer's Understanding of Ballast Water Treatment According to The Ballast Water Management (BMW) Convention

The ballast water used as a ship's stabilizer when it is not loaded has a negative impact on health and the environment and even causes economic losses. One of them is caused by the pathogenic microbes in it. Therefore, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) enacted the Ballast Water Management (BWM) Convention to prevent the spread of pathogenic microbes that are very dangerous to health and the environment. The purpose of this study is to find out the extent of understanding of BWM Convention of the Deck and Engine Officer Class I and II in PIP Semarang. An analytical description and an overlap approach, including questionnaires, and in-depth interviews were applied to the research method. A total of 27 students from the deck and engine departments were included in the sample. According to the survey's findings, most participants don't fully comprehend the BWM contract. When being asked whether BWM was regulated, the correct answer was 0%. The right response when being asked whether Indonesia ratified the BWM was 0%. When being asked how the efficiency of BWM was 3.7% for the D-1 standard (ballast replacement) and 11.1% for the D-2 standard (ballast handling). However, 44.4% of respondents correctly identified the significance of treating ballast water, indicating that they are worried about the threat posed by this substance and that immediate action is required. The idea is to provide the student officers with knowledge via seminars, which could include training on maritime pollution or special ballast water training.

Evaluation of ballast water treatment systems from the perspective of expert seafarers' ship experiences

Until recently, the selection of ballast water treatment (BWT) systems was based on a predetermined set of criteria that did not include evaluations for system utilization due to lack of experience. The experience-building phase for the systems began, especially with the entry of the Ballast Water Management Convention into force. For effective assessment and decision-making, the evaluations of expert seafarers responsible for using ballast water treatment systems on-board ships are of paramount importance. This study was completed by evaluating the experience and evaluations of 50 expert seafarers (24 deck personnel and 26 engine personnel) working in a Turkish maritime company in three phases to contribute to the decision-making and system evaluation processes: 1- The failure reports written by the ship personnel of the maritime company were examined, and bilateral interviews with expert seafarers working on these tankers were held; 2- an online questionnaire was prepared and presented to seafarers; 3Analytic hierarchy process (AHP) was used to obtain a common perspective of the seafarers. In this study's first phase, 'ideal system characteristics' were determined. Based on these characteristics, an online questionnaire was prepared in the second phase of this study and presented to seafarers. In the third phase, a set of six criteria was developed, and the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) was used to obtain the common perspective of 50 participants. Pairwise comparisons revealed that ‘Rare alarms and malfunctions’ was the most important criterion from the perspective of all seafarers and UV-type BWTSs were 1.76 times more preferable than the electrochemical (El-Chem) type BWTSs as a common approach.

Implementation of Ballast Water Management Convention Requirements in Maritime Education

Ballast Water Management Convention entered into force on the 8th of September 2017. Nevertheless, six years later, many problems are still waiting for their solution. Despite International Maritime Organization Guidelines, IMO HTW 7/12, Resolution MEPC.173 (58) and others, some details are still open questions that are waiting to receive their answer from the practice. The maritime society still discusses the correct way of collecting samples from ship’s ballast tanks, laboratory accreditation and licensing regulations, ballast water treatment systems maintenance. Another important issue is education and training of the personnel in charge of systems’ operation and repair. Education and training processes are already in the focus of the International Maritime Organization (IMO) but still waiting for Member states’ decision. The idea for such kind of activities appears in some particular educational institutions and training centers but the subject is not in the syllabi. Ballast Water Management Convention and related knowledge and skills are the new challenge for the shipping in all respects. The aim of this article is research regarding implementation of Ballast Water Management Convention in maritime education worldwide and in Bulgarian education and training institutions. The method of information analysis is used in order to compare what the leading maritime institutions propose in respect to Ballast Water Management Convention.

Onshore ballast water management systems: National perspectives

The present paper focuses on ballast water management systems (BWMS) in line with the Ballast Water Management Convention, aiming to prevent marine pollution from harmful alien species transported through ships’ ballast water. Three approaches of BWMS are considered: Ballast water exchange, Onboard and Onshore systems. Solutions regarding ballast water reception and treatment are proposed, including several options: for ports that are equipped with ballast water reception facilities (BWRFs); for ports not equipped with BWRFs and for companies with onshore facilities (OBWRFs).Thoroughly examined in the paper is the applicability of national onshore BWMS inclusive specifically of the expected users of the OBWRFs; suggested stakeholder groups involved in the process and their responsibilities; step by step procedure; documentation of the procedure related to the main parties - the Shipowner/ captain, Port authority, the company with OBWRFs. It has been found out that OBWRFs are more suitable to be applied on national level, bearing in mind that most of the Bulgarian ports are limited to increase their working area. Further research should be carried out about the possible location of the OBWRFs with regard to the necessary infrastructure, equipment, restricted zones, etc.

A port statistics-based generic ballast water estimation and risk assessment approach and its application to Chinese ports

The Ballast Water Management Convention now enters the experience-building stage, but developing countries have no adequate ballast water information yet. Against this background, considering the richness and generality of common port statistics, we develop a new generic approach to estimate discharge volumes and assess associated risks. This is one of the few efficient and feasible ways for port authorities to manage real discharged ballast water. Discharge volumes during 2017–2020 and risks in 2017 are analyzed for bulker and tanker. Results show that: (1) Ports in Yangtze River Delta and Bohai Rim received most ballast water, especially Ningbo-Zhoushan port as high-risk region receiving about 65 million tons per year; (2) With a higher ratio of discharge volumes to cargo throughputs, the tanker tends to release more ballast water than the bulker; (3) Chinese ports suffer more than 0.9 of the probability of non-indigenous species introduction. All these findings help implement convention globally.

Modification of Ballast Filtering Device on John Lie Training Ship to Prevent Marine Pollution

This study aims to present appropriate selection methods for evaluation, analysis, and comparison between different ballast water treatment technology systems in order to make good decisions in selecting the most optimal treatment system. This research designed a ballast water filter device on the John Lie training ship to prevent marine pollution due to species movement through the ballast water transfer process by referring to the D2 standard of the IMO Ballast Water Management Convention. During the ballasting process, ballast water contains thousands of species of marine animals and plants that are carried in ballast tanks, causing problems for the marine environment and human health. The modification of the filtration tool designed by the researcher used a 0,1 mm and 0,01 mm net tied to the ballast tank inlet pipe using a clamp on the ballast pipe of the John Lie training ship. This can fully be used during the process of filling ballast water from port seawater to enter the ballast tank through this filtration system. The results shown after passing the filter with a total plate count of 36 microorganisms indicate that the filtration system designed by the researcher can meet the D2 standard of the IMO BWM Convention Regulation.

Improvement in compliance of ships' ballast water discharges during commissioning tests

The number of ships installing ballast water management systems (BWMS) has risen steeply since the Ballast Water Management Convention entered into force. Since June 2022, biological testing is required during commissioning to verify compliance with the Convention. Data from 676 tests (from 2019 to 2022) show substantial improvement over time: the failure rate decreased from ~20 % to ~6 %. Notably, nearly all failures occurred in the largest size class of organisms (≥50 μm). Interestingly, proxy measurements suggest that high concentrations of living organisms in uptake water did not cause the failures. Also, failures determined using “indicative” analysis (here, adenosine triphosphate, ATP) were typically not confirmed by “detailed” analysis (microscopy), suggesting that ATP limits are over-precautionary. Finally, discharges containing high levels of Total Residual Oxidants (TRO) decreased over time. These data highlight the need for ongoing testing—focusing at least on organisms ≥50 μm—to minimize environmental risks from organisms transported in ships' ballast water.

Development dynamic compliance cost model for implementation of ballast water management convention: shipowner perspective

The Ballast Water Management Convention (BWMC) regulates ship ballast water management to avoid the spread of aquatic invasive species. The convention requires all ships, including existing ones, to have a Ballast Water Treatment System (BWTS) onboard before September 8, 2024. There are some concerns about the compliance costs of BWMC, especially the additional cost of retrofitting cases. The ship retrofitting cost will depend on various factors, and it can be difficult for a shipowner to determine accurately. The procedure is intricate, and there are many factors to consider, such as the ship's size, BWTS system complexity, and the price of materials and modification level. In this paper, A proposed approach involves expert judgment to capture the effect of multi-stakeholder and estimate the compliance cost. As an essential part of the research methodology, the system dynamics method and life cycle cost are combined to develop a compliance cost model during the ship's lifetime. The simulation model shows that the confidence level of retrofitting costs for each BWTS is more than 94%. Therefore, the model can be used to estimate additional costs. As a result, BWTS type A is the most economical system for small tankers, with an estimated cost of USD 802,860 for the remaining 12 years of the ship's lifetime. Shipowners can use this model as a supporting decision tool to determine which BWTS would be suitable and assist in determining the budget necessary to comply with the BWMC.

UV-LEDs combined with persulfate salts as a method to inactivate microalgae in ballast water

The Ballast Water Management Convention (BWMC) establishes limits for viable organisms in discharged ballast water. UV-based ballast water management systems (BMWS) are among the most common, especially those with low pressure (LP) and medium pressure (MP) mercury lamps. An interesting alternative to mercury lamps could be UV LEDs that have been developing over recent years. UVA, UVB, and UVC LEDs have been tested as a method to inactivate microalgae in ballast water. For this study, the diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum was selected as a target organism. Comparing the D2 (dose required to achieve two log reductions) for P. tricornutum from different UV treatments, it was observed that UVC LEDs were 74.2 % more efficient than UVB LEDs and, compared with previous studies, 48.1 % more efficient than UVC LP mercury lamps. If a five day dark post-treatment was combined with the UV irradiation to avoid photoreactivation, UVC LEDs were 90 % more efficient than UVB LEDs and, compared with previous studies, 36.8 % more efficient than UVC LP mercury lamps. No damage with or without photoreactivation was caused by UVA irradiation with doses up to 4·104 mJ cm−2. The combination of peroxymonosulfate (PMS) with UVA, UVB and UVC LEDs did not significantly increase the inactivation, and the combination of the peroxydisulfate (PDS) with UVC LEDs slightly decreases the inactivation compared with UVC irradiation alone. In conclusion, UVC LEDs were the most efficient for inactivating P. tricornutum, and the combination of PMS and PDS with UV LEDs did not notably improve it.

Managing Ship’s Ballast Water: A Feasibility Assessment of Mobile Port-Based Treatment

The International Maritime Organization (IMO) has adopted the Ballast Water Management Convention (BWMC), which requires vessels to manage their ballast water according to specific standards. While most vessels have to install a management system onboard, in some cases, a mobile solution, for example a system fitted in a container, might be a more viable solution. These mobile systems are an excellent solution as a contingency measure as well, that is when onboard systems malfunction. Research on the topic is rather scant. To that extent, this paper proposes a Bayesian network-based framework to model and assess the feasibility of mobile ballast water treatment solutions. The results based on input from experts indicate that mobile systems are a highly feasible solution. The operational and logistical feasibility of the system are the most important parameters and are areas where the manufacturers and service providers should pay more attention. With compliance deadlines approaching, malfunctions of installed systems increasing and the technology for port-based solutions becoming more mature, there will be increased focus on port-based systems. Our results can, therefore, provide valuable insights to regulators, ship and port operations and we hope that they can spark further academic research on this area.

The Expanding Role of Classification Societies in Conserving the Marine Environment: The Case of the 2004 BWM Convention

Private actors and their roles in conserving the marine environment have attracted increasing attention. Although classification societies were originally designed as industrial organizations developing internal standards on hull and machinery, their contributions to the marine environmental protection should not go ignored. As exemplified by the Ballast Water Management (BWM) Convention, an international shipping instrument on ballast discharge for which the implementation process was subject to technological uncertainties, their contributions can be described in three ways: verification on behalf of states as “recognized organizations”; participation in International Maritime Organization (IMO) sessions; and establishment of their own standards. It is argued that these multiple functions reveal the competence of classification societies to tackle vessel-source pollution, and further, that their technical know-how and firsthand experience accumulated from shipping practice demonstrate their potential to address other complicated marine environmental issues where experience and compliance technologies are essential. However, the expanding focus of classification societies to marine environmental issues should proceed with caution. A much under-discussed point is the impact of classification rules and standards developed by the International Association of Classification Societies (IACS) on international shipping conventions as agreed by states. Though it cannot be said that classification societies are making their own vessel-source discharge standards independent from the IMO lawmaking process, the Unified Requirements on BWM system installation illustrate that obligations under international instruments could be de facto complemented by industrial standards, despite the fact that no provisions incorporating the latter are explicitly spelled out in the former. Given the noticeable lack of state consent throughout the private standard-setting process and the near-universal applicability of IACS standards, legitimacy concerns arise as to whether it is justified for classification societies to wield such an impact on the development of vessel-source pollution requirements, affecting both states and other maritime stakeholders. In this respect, a global administrative law perspective is taken to examine in what ways their legitimacy could be challenged.

The Seafarer’s Level of Understanding on Ballast Water Management Convention

Due to practical and economic considerations, the sea transportation is increasingly in demand as a means of transporting world trade activities. The ships without cargo will use ballast water as a stabilizer. Ballast water is often carried by various foreign microorganisms that harm the ecosystem. IMO promulgated the 8 September 2017 Ballast Water Management (BWM) Convention to prevent the spread of harmful pathogenic microbes. This study aims to determine the understanding of seafarers of the provisions of BWM. The descriptive-analytical method used a cross-sectional approach using questionnaires and in-depth interviews. The sample consisted of 47 seafarers; 3 samples were removed because they did not meet the requirements. The results show that most respondents do not understand the provisions of BWM correctly. None of the respondents knew when the BWM was enacted. In some questions, less than 10% of the answers are correct. However, on the importance of handling ballast water, there is 43.18% answered correctly, meaning that there is a concern for respondents about the dangers of it, and it is essential to address it immediately. We suggest that socialization among seafarers can be through seminars or special training on ballast water.

Semicontinuous and batch ozonation combined with peroxymonosulfate for inactivation of microalgae in ballast water

The Ballast Water Management Convention (BWMC) establishes limits regarding the permissible number of viable organisms in discharged ballast water. Ozone as a ballast water treatment is interesting because it can be generated in-situ and has strong oxidant power. Additionally, some oxidants can be formed in reaction with seawater, especially brominated compounds, that assist in inactivating microorganisms. The objective of this study is to assess the efficacy of semicontinuous and batch ozonation as well as their combination with peroxymonosulfate salt (PMS) as methods to be used to ensure compliance with regulation D2 of the BWMC using Tetraselmis suecica as a standard microorganism. Growth modeling method was employed to determine the inactivation achieved by the treatments. The results show that ozone is an effective treatment for accomplishing the D2 of the BWMC. Batch ozonation is more efficient than semicontinuous ozonation probably because of the brominated compounds formed during the ozone saturation of the water. The oxidants that are developed during the ozonation of seawater prolong the residual effect of the treatment throughout the days of storage with practically no presence of them in the ballast tanks at 72 h. The addition of the PMS increases the inactivation in the semicontinuous ozonation, but a threshold concentration of ozone is needed to observe the synergistic effect of both oxidants. No increase is associated with the combination of O3 and PMS in the case of batch ozonation.

Implementing the Ballast Water Management Convention in Shipping Practice: Emerging Threats, Operational Issues and Solutions

Implementing the Ballast Water Management Convention in Shipping Practice: Emerging Threats, Operational Issues and Solutions

Bacteriological Study of Ballast Water at Tanjung Emas Port, Semarang

The D-2 Ballast Water Management Convention standard regulates the requirements for the disposal of ballast water, which must not contain pathogenic bacteria, which are harmful to health and pollute the environment and the sustainability of local ecosystems. Tanjung Emas was chosen because it is one of the busiest ports in Indonesia to serve domestic shipping. In addition, there has never been a study examining the composition of bacteria carried through ballast water at the port of Tanjung Emas. This study aims to determine the content of pathogenic bacteria carried by the ballast water of ships docked at Tanjung Emas Port compared to the waters around the disposal and river flows around Tanjung Emas Port, Semarang. The samples were taken from 4 ships, 5 waters, and 2 rivers in Tanjung Emas area. The samples were analyzed biochemically to obtain the morphology of the bacteria present. The results showed that ballast water from the ships (KVOG, KMPS, and M) contains pathogenic bacteria: V. cholerae, E. coli, enterococci, S. typhii, S. desenteriae, Klebsiella, S. epidermidis, B. subtilis, and Actinobacteria. All types of that bacteria were also found in the Tanjung Emas waters except Actinobacteria. For three bacteria i.e. V. cholerae, E. coli, and enterococci whose levels exceed the threshold required by the BWM Convention and have the potential to pollute the Tanjung Emas environment. The water from the river did not contribute to the presence of V. cholerae bacteria in port waters, so the ballast water must be treated before being disposed of.