Baldwin Locomotive Research Articles

The Twelfth Engine: A Confluence of Business Perspectives

Despite an inadequate inventory of locomotives in 1844, the Philadelphia & Reading sold one locomotive — the Mohegan — to the State of Michigan. The seemingly simple sale was complex and curious. The engine was precious to the PR surprising because the bonds, which had been issued to finance Michigan’s ill-fated internal improvements program, had been repudiated in 1842 and were in default in 1844. And Michigan was then trying to sell the Central Railroads’ assets, which would include the Mohegan, to a group of Boston and New York investors. Those investors, particularly the Bostonians, held significant investments in each of the Philadelphia & Reading and Locks & Canals. Unheralded, but pivotally, the Baldwin Locomotive Works was aggressively seeking to build locomotives for each of Michigan and the Philadelphia & Reading. This paper explores the confluence that enabled, resulted in, and influenced the terms of the sale of the Mohegan, particularly from financial and business perspectives. The story is a vehicle for examining intricate financial maneuverings that shaped the emergence of a capital-intensive industry (railroading) as each transactional participant protected and enhanced its own financial and operational interests within its constraints. Each party, using its knowledge of the objectives and needs of and constraints affecting each other party, sought to maximize the probability of realizing its own objectives, which required facilitating each other party’s realization of its objectives in accordance with that other party’s constraints. A sort of multiple regression analysis over seemingly unrelated parties, objectives, imperatives, and constraints wove together a series of otherwise independent transactions.

A New Framework for Workshop Contracting: Philadelphia Machine Building, 1870–1914

Most historians believe that inside contracting (IC), a system that had its origins in the early industrial revolution, remained an important practice throughout nineteenth-century America. Under IC, proprietors appointed a senior worker who agreed to supply components or completed articles at an agreed price. It was the contractor who bore the risk of failure or pocketed the profits. Here was a system that created an alternative locus of power within the workshop. Focusing on machine building, this article argues that IC should be seen as a feature of the earlier nineteenth century, primarily associated with New England's industrial development. In the workshops of 1870s and 1880s Philadelphia, proprietors and workers used the language of ‘contracting’ but its meaning was altogether different. In Philadelphia, a system of piece contracting (PC) emerged, encouraged by the crisis of the 1870s depression, as proprietors attempted to reduce costs and control skilled labour—in contrast to earlier IC which was an expression of owners’ reluctance or inability to take charge. At the Baldwin Locomotive Works and Cramp shipyard a sophisticated system of gang PC also developed. PC did not offer a share of the profits but only limited inducement to a layer of labour aristocrat ‘contractors’; overall, it intended to constrain the world of the skilled mechanic.

Organizational Culture and Radical Technological Change: The Railway Locomotive Industry During the Twentieth Century

Beginning in the 1930s, North American railroads began replacing their steam locomotives with diesels at an ever-accelerating rate. Established steam locomotive producers, most notably the American Locomotive Company and the Baldwin Locomotive Works, proved incapable of dealing with this radical technological discontinuity. As successful steam locomotive manufacturers, these firms developed a corporate managerial culture that was not only linked closely to steam locomotive technology; it also embodied the fundamentals of small-batch custom manufacturing. More successful competitors, such as Electro-Motive (later a division of General Motors), developed a corporate culture amenable to both diesel locomotive technology and the standardized near-mass-production techniques that made diesel production efficient and profitable. Electro-Motive executives understood that railroad customers increasingly valued performance characteristics (flexibility, lower operating costs) best fulfilled by diesels, while steam locomotive producers continued to concentrate on the outdated characteristics (horsepower, low initial cost) of steam locomotive technology.

3408 大阪汽車製造合資会社の技術者と初期の製品

In 1901,the HIRAOKA WORKS (found by Mr. Hiroshi HIRAOKA in 1890) was merged into the OSAKA KISHA SEIZO GOSHI-KAISHA (found by Mr. Masaru INOUE in 1896), and they were newly establisaed as the KISHA SEIZO KAISHIA. The president of this new company was Mr. Masaru INOUE and vice president was Mr. Hiroshi HIRAOKA. President INOUE invited Mr. Syogo HASEGAWA as Chairman of engineers and Mr. Heijiro KUDO as engineer for the purpose of design and production business to the rolling stock from the Omiya Works of Nippon Railway Co.. Mr. HASEGAWA was a person who passed in the U.S. after graduated the Imperial College of Engineering, and experienced the business affairs of design and production at the Baldwin Locomotive Co.. In this report, 1) Engineers who worked at the OSAKA KISHA SEIZO KAISHA, 2) Various kinds of products of this Co. are explained.

13 平岡工場と東京砲兵工廠

HIRAOKA WORKS was found by Mr. Hiroshi HIRAOKA in 1889. He was born at Tokyo in 1856 and studied about rolling stock building at Baldwin Locomotive Works, Phiradelphia, USA. After returned Japan, he began to build rolling stock (passenger and freight cars) at Shimbashi Works of Japanese Imperial Government Railway (JIGR). HIRAOKA WORKS was started its business at the Arsenal of Tokyo. Passenger and freight cars, railway structures and ordnance were supplied for users. Rolling stock supplied for not only JIGR but also many other private railways as Nippon Railway, Sangu Railway and so on. In this report, 1) Outline and short history of the Arsenal of Tokyo, 2) Products of HIRAOKA WORKS, are explained.

The Workshop and the Classroom: Philadelphia Engineering, the Decline of Apprenticeship, and the Rise of Industrial Training, 1878-1900

In 1890, William Sellers, leader of Philadelphia's mechanical community, signaled the end of the nineteenth-century system of workshop apprenticeship. Speaking before the Engineers’ Club he declared that “The crafts which once supplied the comforts and even the luxuries of life have been so divided and subdivided, that few masters of an art… could now find the occasion to practice it; the system of apprenticeship, which had theretofore provided a succession of skilled workmen, became impracticable with the vast army that required to be taught the special details of an art only.” The search for an alternative system started in the 1870s as owners of advanced machine works contemplated a horrifying world in which the city's youth roamed free without the steadying hand of an employer or grounding in vocational skills. In 1878 the Baldwin Locomotive Works, in association with the Spring Garden Institute, pioneered a new system of industrial training—a radical departure from nineteenth-century apprenticeship. Apprentices received instruction in the full range of manual skills from an experienced journeyman on the shop floor but, with the new system, training took place in the shop and classroom under the direct charge of the firm. Sociologist Harry Braverman suggested that the division of labor under industrial capitalism split the work of skilled mechanics by separating conception and execution of tasks. In the sphere of education, a parallel force led to the demise of apprenticeship and the triumph of industrial training. The classroom conquered the workshop.

From steam to diesel: managerial customs and organizational capabilities in the twentieth-century American locomotive industry

This overview of the leading locomotive producers in the United States during the twentieth century shows how they responded to a radical technological change: the replacement of steam locomotives by diesels. The locomotive industry provides a valuable case study of business practices and dramatic shifts in innovation patterns, since two companies--General Motors and General Electric--that had no traditional ties to locomotive production demolished established steam locomotive manufacturers. Albert Churella uses many previously untapped sources to illustrate how producers responded to technological change, particularly between the 1920s and the 1960s. Companies discussed include the American Locomotive Company (ALCo), the Baldwin Locomotive Works, the Lima Locomotive Works, Fairbanks-Morse, the Electro-Motive Division of General Motors, and General Electric. A comparative work of business history and the history of technology, the book is not a complete history of any locomotive builder, nor does it explore the origins of the diesel engine in great detail. What it does, and does superbly, is to demonstrate how managers addressed radical shifts in technology and production methods. Churella reveals that managerial culture and corporate organizational routines, more than technological competency per se, allowed some companies to succeed, yet constrained the actions of others. He details the shift from small-batch custom manufacturing techniques in the steam locomotive industry to mass-production methods in the diesel locomotive industry. He also explains that chance events and fortuitous technological linkages helped to shape competitive patterns in the locomotive industry.

The Baldwin Locomotive Works, 1831-1915: A Study in American Industrial Practice

The Baldwin Locomotive Works, 1831-1915: A Study in American Industrial Practice

The Baldwin Locomotive Works, 1831-1915: A Study in American Industrial Practice (review)

Reviewed by: The Baldwin Locomotive Works, 1831–1915: A Study in American Industrial Practice * Patrick M. Malone (bio) The Baldwin Locomotive Works, 1831–1915: A Study in American Industrial Practice. By John K. Brown. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995. Pp. xxxii+ 328; illustrations, tables, appendixes, notes, bibliography, index. $35.95. The Baldwin Locomotive Works was the largest builder of capital equipment in America, part of a vital economic sector that historians have slighted in most accounts of industrial development. John K. Brown corrects that oversight with this thorough and perceptive analysis of Baldwin’s significance. He examines not only this particular Philadelphia firm but also the business of building locomotives and the critical role of capital equipment suppliers in the economic growth of the nation. This is an amazing book that no American historian can afford to ignore. [End Page 774] Brown has written the first detailed and scholarly study of a major locomotive builder in nineteenth-century America. After a masterful introduction and a discussion of the growth of the firm from its establishment in 1831 to 1866, he offers chapters on locomotive building and innovation in locomotive design. Here and throughout the book, he stresses the priority that Baldwin placed on marketing its products and satisfying customer needs. Next is a series of thematic essays on the company’s management, workforce, and shop practices, covering the period from the mid-nineteenth century to the early twentieth century. The final chapter describes Baldwin’s heyday in the years immediately after 1900 and briefly summarizes the long decline that set in before World War I. It is reassuring that a historian can learn so much about a company that threw out most of its business records when it gave up making locomotives in the 1950s. Brown is an indefatigable sleuth, and his book is a model of investigative research. It is also well grounded in the historiography of several specialized fields. The author builds carefully on the best work of business and technological historians but fearlessly attacks powerful interpretations that have become accepted wisdom. Brown refutes the conclusion of Alfred Chandler and other scholars that mass production firms were the first to establish systematic controls for manufacturing. He pulls high volume producers down from the Olympian heights where historians of the American system of manufacturing have placed them and asserts that capital equipment builders (a truly different breed) deserve at least as much credit for establishing America’s productive superiority by the beginning of the twentieth century. The historical revisions come in rapid succession as Brown reveals the inner workings of an industrial giant with distinctive technological processes, labor relations, managerial systems, and marketing strategies. The shops and the drafting room at the great Baldwin Locomotive Works in the heart of Philadelphia may seem like an alien world to historians who focus on corporate mass production. The talented Baldwin partners (many of them former artisans from the works) were deeply involved in day-to-day operations and knew their way around a locomotive. The capital equipment sector produced heavy machinery for factories, railroads, waterworks, farms, mines, shipyards, and many other users. Brown began his research project because he suspected “that capital equipment builders must have faced unique operational issues compared with those confronting the integrated corporations and American System manufacturers that have dominated recent industrial historiography” (p. xxvi). He shows us how these builders developed similar strategies to deal with narrow markets, demanding buyers, rapid technological change, and volatile economic cycles. The crucial challenge was to respond rapidly to the special needs of particular end users. One way that Baldwin managers did that was by working closely with purchasers to develop customized [End Page 775] designs that included large numbers of high-quality, standardized components. Many of the incremental improvements that dramatically increased the tractive power of locomotives by the end of the nineteenth century came from the master mechanics of the railroads. On the other hand, their demanding specifications forced Baldwin to offer many different classes of locomotives. As it turned out, the company’s “reactive heritage” (pp. 227–28) proved to be a major factor in its downfall, delaying Baldwin’s adoption of diesel-electric motive power...

The Train That Jack Rode

Judging this book by its title, historians might mistake The Baldwin Locomotive Works for a collectors' encyclopedia filled with pictures of train memorabilia or for a heroic corporate history about great locomotive entrepreneurs. Written by John K. Brown, a historian of technology and a professor at the University of Virginia, Baldwin is a far cry from a train book. Rather, Baldwin is a serious scholarly that explains exactly why American historians should care about the companies that once built steam locomotives. During the last half of the nineteenth century, the Baldwin Locomotive Works of Philadelphia was the world's biggest locomotive builder, but size only partially accounts for the company's significance. As Brown demonstrates, capital-equipment firms like Baldwin-little studied by scholars-were among the prime movers in American industrialization, for these companies built the that shouldered the world's work (p. xvii). Americans who came of age during the heyday of industrialization not only loved to watch powerful steam locomotives snake through the landscape, they also enjoyed visiting factories, where they stood mesmerized by big machines that went thump, thump, thump. Brown capitalizes on the subliminal allure of trains and factories to capture the attention of his technologically sophisticated, late-twentieth-century readers. Fittingly, Brown's preface takes readers on a tour of the Baldwin Locomotive Works during its heyday in 1903, when some 18,000 men worked in three shifts around the clock to build seven of the world's iron horses per day. On this tour, Brown shows us the ins-and-outs of building a steam locomotive, while introducing major elements of the larger Baldwin story. During the Baldwin tour, students of American industry will recognize much that is at odds with the standard account of U.S. industrialization. In

Review: The Baldwin Locomotive Works, 1831-1915: A Study in American Industrial Practice, by John K. Brown

Book Review| January 01 1997 Review: The Baldwin Locomotive Works, 1831-1915: A Study in American Industrial Practice, by John K. Brown The Baldwin Locomotive Works, 1831-1915: A Study in American Industrial PracticeJohn K. Brown Paul Israel Paul Israel Search for other works by this author on: This Site PubMed Google Scholar The Public Historian (1997) 19 (1): 115–116. https://doi.org/10.2307/3378999 Views Icon Views Article contents Figures & tables Video Audio Supplementary Data Peer Review Share Icon Share Twitter LinkedIn Tools Icon Tools Get Permissions Cite Icon Cite Search Site Citation Paul Israel; Review: The Baldwin Locomotive Works, 1831-1915: A Study in American Industrial Practice, by John K. Brown. The Public Historian 1 January 1997; 19 (1): 115–116. doi: https://doi.org/10.2307/3378999 Download citation file: Ris (Zotero) Reference Manager EasyBib Bookends Mendeley Papers EndNote RefWorks BibTex toolbar search Search Dropdown Menu toolbar search search input Search input auto suggest filter your search All ContentThe Public Historian Search This content is only available via PDF. Copyright 1997 Regents of the University of California and the National Council on Public History Article PDF first page preview Close Modal You do not currently have access to this content.

The Baldwin Locomotive Works, 1831-1915: A Study in American Industrial Practice.

Journal Article The Baldwin Locomotive Works, 1831–1915: A Study in American Industrial Practice. By John K. Brown. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995. xxxii, 328 pp. $35.95, ISBN 0-8018-5047-9.) Get access Robert C. Post Robert C. Post Dibner Institute for the History of Science and Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar Journal of American History, Volume 83, Issue 2, September 1996, Pages 616–617, https://doi.org/10.2307/2944991 Published: 01 September 1996

The Baldwin Locomotive Works, 1831-1915: A Study in American Industrial Practice

"The Baldwin Locomotive Works, 1831-1915: A Study in American Industrial Practice." History: Reviews of New Books, 24(3), p. 105

“America’s Great Road” at the B&O Railroad Museum

“AMERICA’S GREAT ROAD” AT THE B&O RAILROAD MUSEUM JOHN K. BROWN This modest permanent exhibit at the B&O Railroad Museum has important goals—providing an orientation to the museum and its collections, to the broader history of the Baltimore & Ohio, and to the technology and the historical role of American railroading generally. Given somewhat severe limitations of space (and funding, no doubt), “America’s Great Road” necessarily falls short of fulfilling these large goals. But the curators’ partial success deserves congratulations none­ theless. The exhibit marks a great departure for an institution whose other artifacts, displays, and interpretation mostly date to the dark ages of technology museums, conveying internalist history and Whiggish determinism. Hence, the real accomplishment lies in mounting a professional and informative, if incomplete, orientation that incor­ porates perspectives from contextual technological history and the new social history. The museum’s collection originated as an exhibit mounted by the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad at the 1893 World’s Columbian Exposi­ tion. From that core, the railroad assembled a collection of locomo­ tives, rolling stock, and associated artifacts—many simply old, rather than historic—which it put on public display in 1953 at the Mt. Clare Roundhouse, adjacent to downtown Baltimore. In 1987, the B&O’s successor, CSX Corporation, finally established the museum as an independent entity with a professional staff.1 Dr. Brown teaches the history of technology at the University of Virginia. His history of the Baldwin Locomotive Works is published by Johns Hopkins University Press, and he is presently researching the rise of mechanical drawing in American industry and writing a book on the Eads Bridge, a project started by John A. Kouwenhoven . ’John H. White, Jr., “Baltimore and Ohio Transportation Museum,” Technology and Culture 11 (1970): 70-84, laid out the history of the museum and described the collec­ tion in detail. White also discussed the Fair of the Iron Horse, a pageant celebrating the B&O’s centennial in 1927, which provided an important impetus for saving the collection and led, indirectly, to founding the museum at Mt. Clare in the 1950s. Of related interest is White’s “The Railway Museum: Past, Present, and Future,” Technology and Culture 14 (1973): 599-613.© 1995 by the Society for the History of Technology. All rights reserved. 0040-165X/95/3603-0010$01.00 641 642 John K. Brown To this day, however, the tired and dusty old iron on display cannot escape its heritage. There are remnants of varied significance from the company attic, corporate promotional tools, and some figurative wooden nickels, since many of the engines are backdated, altered originals or conjectural “replicas,” created when the railroad sought a usable past. Following the radial layout of the roundhouse, visitors proceed from a replica of Peter Cooper’s 1830 Tom Thumb to a 1902 Atlantic (4-4-2-type) engine, with more recent steam and diesel loco­ motives located in a yard outside. Signage is minimal, old, and some­ times inaccurate, leaving the engines with a single mute message of technological progress and improvement. Once freed of corporate control, the museum’s new curators felt these inadequacies even more keenly than any historically informed visitor. But where to begin? As the staff realized, even the museum’s implicit lessons were lost to many younger patrons who, by 1987, had little awareness of modern railroading, let alone any historical sense of the towering social, economic, and technical impact of railroads in American history. For Baltimore’s schoolchildren, the engines at Mt. Clare were more remote than dinosaurs and far less appealing. Real­ izing this lack of personal context for railroads among most visitors, the curators wisely began their remake of the museum with this orien­ tation exhibit. The National Endowment for the Humanities provided a planning grant for “America’s Great Road,” and it was designed by the mu­ seum’s former curator, John Hankey, and David Berman of db de­ sign. Using a 75-foot entry corridor to the roundhouse, the exhibit sketches the origins of railroading, the growth of the B&O, and the operations at the Mt. Clare complex during the railroad’s heyday. From the ticket lobby, visitors walk past a series of panels and cases arranged along both sides of the corridor, incorporating...

The American Railroad Freight Car: From the Wood-Car Era to the Coming of Steel by John H. White, Jr

TECHNOLOGYAND CULTURE Book Reviews 191 mission with authority and style, and Stanford University Press has produced an equally stylish and well-illustrated book. John K. Brown Dr. Brown is a historian in the Division of Technology, Culture and Communication in the School of Engineering at the University of Virginia. His history of the Baldwin Locomotive Works is forthcoming from Johns Hopkins University Press. The American Railroad Freight Car: From the Wood-Car Era to the Coming of Steel. Byjohn H. White,Jr. Baltimore:Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993. Pp. xi+644; illustrations, tables, notes, appendixes, index. $125.00. Jack White has wanted to know railway cars the way Thoreau wanted to know beans, and he would not be immodest in claiming greater success. This magisterial study is a worthy companion to his TheAmerican Railroad Passenger Car (1978); both are monuments of erudition on important but neglected subjects and treasures of insight for students of technology. Few technologies have been more pivotal to American economic development than railroad freight cars, yet little has been known or written about them in the past century. No one prior to White has explained the technical aspects of rolling stock more fully or lucidly or placed them more clearly in the context of broader railroad development. Although encyclopedic in detail and coverage, his narra­ tive is leavened with wit and grace. “Cheap transportation is the essence of railroad freight service” (p. 3). With this observation White opens a 150-page overview that breaks down the functions of freight transport to each of its basic elements from train size and crews to schedules, communications, yards, speeds, repair shops, and car assembly. This essay on the fundamentals of how railroads operate is as clear and informative an account as anything in print on the subject. After surveying the pioneer freight cars before 1870, he takes up in successive chapters the development of cars for general merchandise, food, bulk cargoes, and special shipments. These are followed by an informative discussion of the components of freight car technology (trucks, running-gear subassemblies, couplers and draft gears, and brakes). A final chapter on the early history of iron and steel cars summarizes the controversy over wood versus metal in freight cars. There are two useful appendixes, one giving biographical sketches of prominent car builders and the other a chronology of freight car development. No summary can dojustice to the scope and intelligence of this work. White admits that, “regrettably, I have not been able to devise a thesis or single overall focus for this book” (p. xi). Nevertheless, certain themes recur often enough to gain significant illumination. One of the most important is the unceasing conflict between standardization and 192 Book Reviews TECHNOLOGY AND CULTURE innovation in car design and construction. Well-managed railroads looked constantly to improve their efficiency through cars that were larger and more specialized, and possessed more advanced features. But a powerful contrary force impeded these good intentions. As rail fleets grew ever larger, so did the urge to standardize cars as a cost-effective measure for everything from parts to repair facilities to ease of interchange. In one sense this conflict pitted efficiency against cost effectiveness. Safety, too, was no simple question of technological improvements and right thinking. White shows in detail how complex the question of incorporating new safety devices like air brakes and Janney couplers became and how the workmen who were supposed to benefit from them often resisted their introduction as strenuously as the railroads that had to pay for them. Even the casual reader will marvel at the amazing diversity and ingenuity of those inventors and designers who poured forth solutions to one technical problem or another—whether it be a more perfect wheel, the ideal balance between weight and strength, or the most functional design for an all-purpose or highly specialized car. In each case, White exhumes the sprawling graveyard of lost brainstorms with surgical precision, outlining the problem, showing the range of pro­ posed solutions (usually with drawings), and analyzing why they failed to catch on or endure. The production values match the high quality of the scholarship. This handsome, oversized work is printed on glossy paper for...

The North Carolina Railroad, 1849–1871, and the Modernization of North Carolina by Allen W. Trelease

378 Book Reviews TECHNOLOGY AND CULTURE craftsmen made to improve productive efficiencies, such as the use of sewing machines and other human-powered machinery. But he says relatively little about evolutions in the labor processes of craft shops. Craftsmen competing with factory producers were no doubt driven to such efficiency measures as piecework, labor subdivision, and hiring semiskilled men. If so, the workforce skill that we (and Winpenny) ascribe to craftsmanship was both narrowed and diluted to the point at which a craft designation for such work is suspect. Although such measures are noted at isolated points, we never learn the full criteria by which Winpenny excluded such specialized or semiskilled workers from his tables of the crafting population. Many readers will wish the study had more economic analysis on how craftsmen survived in competition with larger manufacturers, and others will wonder how representative Lancaster’s experience was. Winpenny’s book is a revisionist’s account of an important topic, and, like many such works, it is better at raising questions than answering them. John K. Brown Mr. Brown is a doctoral candidate in American history and the history of technology at the University of Virginia. He is completing a dissertation on the history of the Baldwin Locomotive Works. The North Carolina Railroad, 1849—1871, and the Modernization ofNorth Carolina. By Allen W. Trelease. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991. Pp. xvi + 486; illustrations, tables, notes, bibliography, index. $37.50. This book relates the history of a 200-mile railroad running east and west across North Carolina between Goldsboro and Greensboro. It was built largely with state money because most investors wisely assumed it would not likely prove profitable in the traffic-poor antebellum South. In time, such pessimistic opinions were disproved and the railroad was leased to the Richmond & Danville, a predeces­ sor of the present-day Norfolk Southern Railway. The author presents a competent and readable corporate history that goes beyond what we might expect from such a regional study. Traditional corporate histories tend to dwell on finance and construc­ tion and then drift off into high-level management strategies or merger entanglements. Allen Trelease has chosen instead to devote much of his text to matters of traffic, operations, and the workaday life of the employees. This is the strength of the study, in my opinion, and one I hope others will follow. A fine set of tables following the text offers an informative statistical view of the North Carolina Railroad. John H. White, Jr. Mr. White is senior historian at the National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution. ...

Guidelines for a product technology strategy

In 1917, the American Locomotive and Baldwin Locomotive companies were among the 100 largest corporations in America. This gave them all the advantages associated with companies that dominate their industries: scale, experience, established channels of distribution, solid reputations, and access to capital. Yet within 30 years, the combined market share of these two companies fell from nearly 100 to below 50 percent. Within 52 years, both were out of the locomotive business altogether, and neither company survives today.

War and the railways. : The Baldwin Locomotive Works, Record No. 93, 1919.)

The availability of synchrotron radiation from bending magnet sources has contributed in a major way to new research in physics, chemistry, biology, materials science, and technologies. The newly proposed 6–7 GeV Advanced Photon Source based on insertion device sources (undulators and wigglers) will enhance the research capability in all these areas many-fold and provide new opportunites in even wider ranges of scientific and technological research. The characteristics of the synchrotron radiation from the insertion devices on a 6–7 GeV Advanced Photon Source will be discussed, highlighting their high brilliance and low beam divergence. Some of the unique scientific opportunities provided by such an insertion-device-based X-ray source will be presented.

Qualitative Chemical Analysis. A Laboratory Guide . By W. W. Scott, A.M., chief chemist, Baldwin Locomotive works, formerly Professor of Chemistry, Morningside College, New York. D. Van Nostrand Co. 1910. $1.50 net; A Course in Qualitative Chemical Analysis . By Charles Baskerville, Ph.D., F.C.S., Professor in the Department of Chemistry of the College of the City of New York, and

<i>Qualitative Chemical Analysis. A Laboratory Guide</i> . By W. W. Scott, A.M., chief chemist, Baldwin Locomotive works, formerly Professor of Chemistry, Morningside College, New York. D. Van Nostrand Co. 1910. $1.50 net; <i>A Course in Qualitative Chemical Analysis</i> . By Charles Baskerville, Ph.D., F.C.S., Professor in the Department of Chemistry of the College of the City of New York, and

Qualitative Chemical Analysis. A Laboratory Guide . By W. W. Scott, A.M., chief chemist, Baldwin Locomotive works, formerly Professor of Chemistry, Morningside College, New York. D. Van Nostrand Co. 1910. $1.50 net; A Course in Qualitative Chemical Analysis . By Charles Baskerville, Ph.D., F.C.S., Professor in the Department of Chemistry of the College of the City of New York, and

<i>Qualitative Chemical Analysis. A Laboratory Guide</i> . By W. W. Scott, A.M., chief chemist, Baldwin Locomotive works, formerly Professor of Chemistry, Morningside College, New York. D. Van Nostrand Co. 1910. $1.50 net; <i>A Course in Qualitative Chemical Analysis</i> . By Charles Baskerville, Ph.D., F.C.S., Professor in the Department of Chemistry of the College of the City of New York, and