Balance Requirements Research Articles

Anatomy of a field-reversed configuration

A reconstructor tool is developed for fast computation of fully two-dimensional equilibria of field-reversed configurations (FRCs) that are consistent with routine magnetic data from experiments. This tool fosters physical interpretation of multiple FRC properties. The physics model is a rotating fluid that also captures several realistic kinetic effects. The tool allows both FRC solutions and high-β mirror solutions (no closed magnetic flux) a bifurcation, dependent on the input data. A major conclusion is that FRCs can exist only within a limited shape domain, i.e., combinations of plasma radius and length. These limitations reflect the requirement of equilibrium force balance and tearing stability. Inspection of a considerable range of experiments shows that the shape domain reflects actual operational boundaries. Working from timeline data from an experiment the tool finds the evolving two-dimensional structure plus the time histories of critical properties such as trapped flux, plasma energy, and plasma current. These timelines offer clues about underlying stability and transport properties not contained within the equilibrium model itself. Properties of traditional FRCs as well as modern, neutral-beam driven FRCs are explored, and specific experimental shots are reconstructed.

Consequences of the COVID-19/SARS-CoV-2 pandemic for gastroenterology in Germany

Die Empfehlungen der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Gastroenterologie, Verdauungs- und Stoffwechselkrankheiten (DGVS) zu COVID-19 („coronavirus disease 2019“) bei gastroenterologischen Patienten sind auf der Homepage unter „Informationen“ (https://www.dgvs.de/covid-19/) einsehbar. Zum Schutz vor SARS(„severe acute respiratory syndrome“)-CoV(„coronavirus“)-2 gibt es Empfehlungen der European Society of Gastrointestinal Endoscopy (ESGE) und der European Society of Gastroenterology and Endoscopy Nurses and Associates (ESGENA). Getrennte Endoskopieräume für Hochrisikopatienten bzw. Unterdruckuntersuchungsräume sollten Gegenstand der Planung zukünftiger Endoskopiezentren sein. Ob nach der ersten COVID-19-Welle weiterhin eine Priorisierung gastroenterologischer Leistungen erfolgen muss, ist zurzeit noch unklar. Der Report des Wissenschaftlichen Instituts der Allgemeinen Ortskrankenkasse (AOK; WldO) bzw. Umfragen von ALGK (Arbeitsgemeinschaft gastroenterologischer Klinikärzte) und bng (Berufsverband Niedergelassener Gastroenterologen Deutschlands) zeigen, dass der Coronavirus-Lockdown zu einem deutlichen Rückgang der Krankheiten des Verdauungstrakts und der gastroenterologischen Leistungen inkl. der Vorsorgekoloskopie geführt hat. Es ist anzunehmen, dass der Abbau der Überkapazitäten mit Reduktion der stationären Leistungen im deutschen Gesundheitswesen auch nach Bewältigung der Coronapandemie weitergeführt wird. Entscheidend ist, wie wir den Arztberuf für junge Kollegen attraktiv erhalten und gestalten können. Die hohe Rate an Burn-outs und Suiziden sowie die schwierige Vereinbarkeit mit den Ansprüchen einer ausgewogenen „life balance“ sind Alarmsignale, die beachtet werden müssen.

Оцінка економічної вигоди активів соціально відповідального бізнесу

Modern market development concepts which determine the need for a comprehensive assessment of business performance through social security impact on the environmental safety programs implementation at the enterprise level (as well as at the regional and national levels) are generalized. Alternative forms of economic benefits from using production resources in the context of balanced business policy context are studied. The financial results determining practice, based on analytical accounting of economic benefit elements assessment by international entities, taking into account their impact on economic development, social protection and environmental security are revealed. Alternative criteria of economic benefits, that are the conceptual income and expenses basis, as well as features of financial results based on analytical accounting of economic benefit elements (taking into account their impact on economic development, social protection and environmental security) are substantiated. Оbjectives of the article are: generalization of factors influencing the formation of economic benefits of enterprises’ assets, taking into account the requirements for socio-economic and environmental balance of business; justification of both methodological and organizational approaches and variable forms of economic benefit identification, its evaluation, accounting and analytical support. Criteria for assessing socio-economic benefit, social effect are specified. Methodical and practical approaches to economic benefit classification as an object of both accounting and management are proposed, such as potential of utility of future economic and implemented economic benefit. The international Managerial Accounting practice, analytical level of which identifies economic benefits depending on the period of its receipt is generalized. The use of the above economic benefit classification will improve accounting and analytical information reliability for managers to make effective operational and strategic decisions.

The Primary Modes of Islamic Finance: A Critical Analysis

This paper is an attempt to analyze the practices of Mudarabah and Musharakah been held by the existing Islamic banking. This paper aims to explore the different aspects where Islamic banks were found to be violating the basic rules in these two primary modes of Islamic finance. This paper denies the current practices of Mudarabah and Musharakah at many grounds, like its existence with the concept of limited liability, absentee as a partner, supervisory role of the state bank, and its role as sleeping Mudarib. Similarly, the expense and profit estimation techniques and the acquired procedure to maintain the minimum account balance requirement were also inappropriate with the basic tenets of Shari’ah Principles. This article argues that the structure of overall Islamic banking is purely based on interest bearing investment and financing. It further argues that they deal only in money; they are not involved in any kind of business or trade. According to the authors, the contemporary Islamic banks are inconsistent with Shari'ah in their practices

Effective rainfall estimates for St. Augustinegrass lawns under varying irrigation programs

AbstractPrediction of effective rainfall, rainfall which contributes to the plant available water content, for lawns remains a challenge despite its critical role in accurately estimating a soil water balance and irrigation water requirement. The objective of this research was to validate simple runoff models for estimating effective rainfall on St. Augustinegrass [Stenotaphrum secundatum (Walter) Kuntze ‘Raleigh’] turf managed under varying irrigation strategies. A field experiment was conducted at Texas A&M Urban Landscape Runoff Facility in College Station, TX, USA. Effective rainfall during the irrigation season was approximately 16% of measured rainfall but varied with rainfall depth and irrigation management. Methods which accounted for initial abstraction and subsequent rainfall independently were more accurate than simple coefficient models which only accounted for runoff as a percentage of daily rainfall depth. In general, St. Augustinegrass lawns can abstract 12.5 mm of water before rainfall becomes ineffective (runs off). These findings suggest accurate estimates of effective rainfall can be achieved using readily‐available methods such as the SCS Curve Number model with adjustments for irrigation management strategy. Implementing more accurate effective rainfall estimates may reduce irrigation applied without decreasing turf quality.

Perception of male otolaryngologists on gender discrimination: a comparative study.

PurposeTo gather information on perception of male otolaryngologists (MORLs) about gender discrimination towards female otolaryngologists (FORLs).MethodsMORLs were invited to participate to an online survey. Minimum participation requirement was completion of at least their first year of residency. The responses were analyzed and compared vis-a-vis with the previously conducted similar survey among FORLs.ResultsStatistically significant responses on the Likert scale are classified in four main groups. MORLs and FORLs share the same views about financial factors, benefits and opportunities, housework as burden, establishing work–life balance and physical strength requirements. They have opposing views about FORLs being meticulous, exposed to more negative attitude of the opposite gender and men’s dominance in decision-making. FORLs don’t have consensus, but MORLs disagree about MORLs being favored in pursuing academic careers. On the other hand, MORLs don’t have consensus, but FORLs agree about patients having more confidence in MORLs.ConclusionMORLs don’t usually have any confrontation with FORLs in regards to the roles of women in the society such as their motherhood role. On the other hand, MORLs show rather a contradiction on their perception towards the gender discrimination mainly in achieving career goals by FORLs such as growing in the profession and holding managing roles. When the views of the both gender group are compared, MORLs don’t seem to fully acknowledge FORLs’ gender discrimination experience.

Assessing Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation Options for Farm Performance Using Bio-Economic Models in Southwestern France

Regional impact studies are needed to explore possible adaptation options to climate change. We estimated impacts and adaptation options for future scenarios that feature different assumptions regarding climate, cropping pattern and access to irrigation with two bio-economic farm models. Farm profit, soil organic matter balance and labor input are used as indicators of farm performance. The difference between the baseline and the alternative configurations computed by models is referred as adaptation potential, indicative of the adaptation options including the corresponding changes in cropping patterns. Our results show that as long as there is sufficient access to irrigation water, there is little incentive to change current practices, as farming is at the economic optimum, has a positive soil organic matter balance and labor requirements can be met. Conversely, if irrigation is no longer possible, drastic impacts occur, causing a need to sustainably adjust on-going farm practices. Adaptation through changed crop selection reduced losses to some extent. We conclude that the use of bio-economic models can assist in evaluating the qualitative findings of participatory studies by quantitatively assessing possible climate change impacts and adaptation measures. Strong impacts of climate change, however, cannot be offset by changes in cropping patterns and need further adaptation measures.

Monotonicity Properties of Physical Network Flows and Application to Robust Optimal Allocation

We derive conditions for monotonicity properties that characterize general flows of a commodity over a network, where the flow is described by potential and flow dynamics on the edges, as well as potential continuity and the Kirchhoff–Neumann mass balance requirements at nodes. The transported commodity may be injected or withdrawn at any of the network nodes, and its movement throughout the network is controlled by nodal actuators. For a class of dissipative nonlinear parabolic partial differential equation (PDE) systems on networks, we derive conditions for monotonicity properties in steady-state flow, as well as for propagation of monotone ordering of states with respect to time-varying boundary condition parameters. In the latter case, initial conditions and time-varying parameters in the coupling conditions at vertices provide an initial boundary value problem (IBVP). We prove that ordering properties of the solution to the IBVP are preserved when the initial conditions and the parameters of the time-varying coupling law are appropriately ordered. Then, we prove that when monotone ordering is not preserved, the first crossing of solutions occurs at a network node. We consider the implications for robust optimization and optimal control formulations and real-time monitoring of uncertain dynamic flows on networks and discuss the application to subsonic compressible fluid flow with energy dissipation on physical networks. The main result and monitoring policy are demonstrated for gas pipeline test networks and a case study using data corresponding to a real working system. We propose applications of this general result to the control and monitoring of natural gas transmission networks.

Mediolateral damping of an overhead body weight support system assists stability during treadmill walking

BackgroundBody weight support systems with three or more degrees of freedom (3-DoF) are permissive and safe environments that provide unloading and allow unrestricted movement in any direction. This enables training of walking and balance control at an early stage in rehabilitation. Transparent systems generate a support force vector that is near vertical at all positions in the workspace to only minimally interfere with natural movement patterns. Patients with impaired balance, however, may benefit from additional mediolateral support that can be adjusted according to their capacity. An elegant solution for providing balance support might be by rendering viscous damping along the mediolateral axis via the software controller. Before use with patients, we evaluated if control-rendered mediolateral damping evokes the desired stability enhancement in able-bodied individuals.MethodsA transparent, cable-driven robotic body weight support system (FLOAT) was used to provide transparent body weight support with and without mediolateral damping to 21 able-bodied volunteers while walking at preferred gait velocity on a treadmill. Stability metrics reflecting resistance to small and large perturbations were derived from walking kinematics and compared between conditions and to free walking.ResultsCompared to free walking, the application of body weight support per-se resulted in gait alterations typically associated with body weight support, namely increased step length and swing phase. Frontal plane dynamic stability, measured by kinematic variability and nonlinear dynamics of the center of mass, was increased under body weight support, indicating reduced balance requirements in both damped and undamped support conditions. Adding damping to the body weight support resulted in a greater increase of frontal plane stability.ConclusionAdding mediolateral damping to 3-DoF body weight support systems is an effective method of increasing frontal plane stability during walking in able-bodied participants. Building on these results, adjustable mediolateral damping could enable therapists to select combinations of unloading and stability specifically for each patient and to adapt this in a task specific manner. This could extend the impact of transparent 3-DoF body weight support systems, enabling training of gait and active balance from an early time point onwards in the rehabilitation process for a wide range of mobility activities of daily life.

Balancibility: Existence and uniqueness of power flow solutions under voltage balance requirements

In distribution systems, power injection variability due to growing penetrations of distributed energy resources (DERs) and dispatchable loads can lead to power quality issues such as severe voltage unbalance. To ensure safe operation of phase-balance-sensitive components such as three-phase motor loads, the amount of voltage unbalance must be maintained within specified limits for a range of uncertain loading conditions. This paper builds on existing “solvability conditions” that characterize operating regions for which the power flow equations are guaranteed to admit a unique high-voltage solution. We extend these existing solvability conditions to be applicable to distribution systems and augment them with a “balancibility” condition that quantifies an operating region within which a unique, adequately balanced power flow solution exists. To build this condition, we consider different unbalance definitions and derive closed-form representations through reformulations or safe approximations. Using case studies, we evaluate these closed-form representations and compare the balancibility conditions associated with different unbalance definitions.

Profit-Maximized Collaborative Computation Offloading and Resource Allocation in Distributed Cloud and Edge Computing Systems

Edge computing is a new architecture to provide computing, storage, and networking resources for achieving the Internet of Things. It brings computation to the network edge in close proximity to users. However, nodes in the edge have limited energy and resources. Completely running tasks in the edge may cause poor performance. Cloud data centers (CDCs) have rich resources for executing tasks, but they are located in places far away from users. CDCs lead to long transmission delays and large financial costs for utilizing resources. Therefore, it is essential to smartly offload users’ tasks between a CDC layer and an edge computing layer. This work proposes a cloud and edge computing system, which has a terminal layer, edge computing layer, and CDC layer. Based on it, this work designs a profit-maximized collaborative computation offloading and resource allocation algorithm to maximize the profit of systems and guarantee that response time limits of tasks are strictly met. In each time slot, this work jointly considers CPU, memory, and bandwidth resources, load balance of all heterogeneous nodes in the edge layer, maximum amount of energy, maximum number of servers, and task queue stability in the CDC layer. Considering the abovementioned factors, a single-objective constrained optimization problem is formulated and solved by a proposed simulated-annealing-based migrating birds optimization procedure to obtain a close-to-optimal solution. The proposed method achieves joint optimization of computation offloading between CDC and edge, and resource allocation in CDC. Realistic data-based simulation results demonstrate that it realizes higher profit than its peers. <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">Note to Practitioners</i> —This work considers the joint optimization of computation offloading between Cloud data center (CDC) and edge computing layers, and resource allocation in CDC. It is important to maximize the profit of distributed cloud and edge computing systems by optimally scheduling all tasks between them given user-specific response time limits of tasks. It is challenging to execute them in nodes in the edge computing layer because their computation resources and battery capacities are often constrained and heterogeneous. Current offloading methods fail to jointly optimize computation offloading and resource allocation for nodes in the edge and servers in CDC. They are insufficient and coarse-grained to schedule arriving tasks. In this work, a novel algorithm is proposed to maximize the profit of distributed cloud and edge computing systems while meeting response time limits of tasks. It explicitly specifies the task service rate and the selected node for each task in each time slot by considering resource limits, load balance requirement, and processing capacities of nodes in the edge, and server and energy constraints in CDC. Real-life data-driven simulations show that the proposed method realizes a larger profit than several typical offloading strategies. It can be readily implemented and incorporated into large-scale industrial computing systems.

Serum Calcification Propensity in Children on Chronic Hemodialysis

Serum Calcification Propensity in Children on Chronic Hemodialysis

Dynamic optimization of input production factors for urban industrial water supply and demand management

To help minimize urban industrial water consumption and realize the goal of a water-saving society, this paper develops a method for the dynamic optimization of the input production factors in an urban industrial water supply model. A negative exponential curve describes the urban industrial water consumption per Yuan of urban industrial value added, the latter being described by a Gompertz curve. The product of the two describes the urban industrial water demand. The production function of urban industrial water supply is expressed by the fixed substitution proportional production function. Taking investment and labor input as control variables, the system goal is to balance of industrial water supply and demand. The time-varying model can not only solve the stable state problem for infinite time horizon, but also the transient problem for finite time horizon. Taking Jiangsu province in eastern China as an example, the applicability of the method was investigated under different parameter combinations. The simulation results show its effectiveness in these cases. In the earlier period, meeting balance requirements is easier using the straight-line capital depreciation method. In the later period, the fixed rate on declining balance method allows to meet the requirements more easily. In general, it is easier to achieve the goal by choosing a smaller and feasible weight matrix coefficient of the control variables.

Steady-state sweating during exercise is determined by the evaporative requirement for heat balance independently of absolute core and skin temperatures.

When exercise was prescribed to elicit a fixed evaporative heat balance requirement (Ereq ), no differences in steady-state sweat rates were observed with different absolute oesophageal and/or skin temperatures, secondary to differences in time of the day (i.e. morning (AM) vs. afternoon (PM)) and ambient temperature (i.e. 23°C vs. 33°C). Exercise at a fixed metabolic heat production (Hprod ), but a different Ereq (due to differences in air temperature), yielded higher steady-state sweat rates with a higher Ereq , irrespective of absolute oesophageal temperature. Circadian rhythm did not alter the change in core temperature prior to the onset for sudomotor activation, nor the thermosensitivity, resulting in similar cumulative whole-body sweat rates irrespective of time of day at a fixed Ereq . Collectively, these data indicate that during exercise in a compensable environment, steady-state sudomotor responses are influenced by Ereq rather than absolute core and skin temperatures, or Hprod . The present study sought to determine whether absolute core temperature (modified via diurnal variation) and absolute skin temperature (modified by different air temperatures (Ta )) alters the steady-state sweating response to exercise at a fixed evaporative heat balance requirement (Ereq ). Ten males exercised for 60min on six occasions. Three Ta /heat production (Hprod ) combinations (23°C/525W, 33°C/400W, 33˚C/525W) were completed in the morning (08.00h, AM) and afternoon (16.00h, PM), to yield: (1) the same Ereq (200 or 275W·m-2 ) with different absolute core temperatures (AM vs. PM); (2) the same Ereq (200W·m-2 ) with different skin temperatures (Ta : 23˚C vs. 33˚C); (3) the same heat production (525W) with different Ereq (200 vs. 275W·m-2 ). Oesophageal temperature (Toes ), local sweat rate (LSR) on the arm and upper-back, and whole-body sweat rate (WBSR) were measured. Steady-state Toes was always higher in PM versus AM at an Ereq of 200W·m-2 (23°C, P=0.001; 33°C, P=0.004) and 275W·m-2 , (33°C, P=0.001). However steady-state mean LSR (200W·m-2 /23°C: P=0.25; 200W·m-2 /33°C: P=0.86; 275W·m-2 /33°C: P=0.53) and WBSR (200W·m-2 /23°C: P=0.79; 200W·m-2 /33°C: P=0.48; 275W·m-2 /33°C: P=0.32) were similar. When Ereq was matched (200W·m-2 ) with different Ta (23°C vs. 33°C), steady-state LSR (P>0.17) and WBSR (P>0.93) were similar despite different skin temperatures. For the same Hprod (525 W) but different Ereq (200 vs. 275W·m-2 ), mean LSR (P<0.001), and WBSR (P<0.001) were higher with a greater Ereq . Collectively, steady-state sweating during exercise is altered by Ereq but not Toes , skin temperature, or Hprod .

Modeling and Energy Efficiency Analysis of Thermal Power Plant with High Temperature Thermal Energy Storage (HTTES)

This paper presents the recent research on the study of the strategies for the flexible operation of the thermal power plant to meet the requirement of load balance. The study aimed to investigate the feasibility of bringing the High Temperature Thermal Energy Storage (HTTES) to the thermal power plant steam-water cycle, to identify the suitable HTTES in the cold (hot) section of the reheating pipeline and to test the efficiency of the HTTES integration to increase the flexibility of peak shaving and energy efficiency via thermal power plant with HTTTES modelling and simulation. Thermoflex was adopted to perform the simulation and a 300 MW subcritical coal-fired power plant model was implemented onto the software platform. The simulation results show that it is feasible to extract steam from the steam turbine to charge the HTTES, and to discharge the stored thermal energy back to the power generation process, and to analyse the improved capability of the plant flexible operation with HTTES. Then the study was extended to analyse the effect of thermal energy temperature, the opening of the regulating valve, and the pipeline pressure loss aspects on thermal efficiency of the whole plant. The study is beneficial to achieve more economic operation of the thermal power plant with HTTES integration. It is concluded that the introduction of the HTTES can improve the consumption of wind power, and these ideas and methods for solving the energy consumption of the renewable energy and reducing the peak energy consumption are provided.

Dextran- Versus Crystalloid-Based Prime in Cardiac Surgery: A Prospective Randomized Pilot Study

The optimum priming fluid for the cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) circuit is still debated. We compared a new hyperoncotic priming solution containing dextran 40, which has an electrolyte composition that mimics extracellular fluid, with a standard crystalloid-based prime. Eighty cardiac surgery patients were included in this double-blind, randomized, single-center study. Patients were randomized to either a dextran-based prime or a crystalloid prime containing Ringer's acetate and mannitol. The primary end point was colloid oncotic pressure in serum during CPB. Secondary end points included fluid balance, bleeding and transfusion requirements, pulmonary function, hemolysis, systemic inflammation, and markers of renal, hepatic, myocardial, and brain injury. Blood samples were collected before, during, and after CPB. Colloid oncotic pressure was higher in the dextran group than in the crystalloid prime group during CPB (18.8 ± 2.9 versus 16.4 ± 2.9 mm Hg; P < .001) and 10 minutes after CPB (19.2 ± 2.7 versus 16.8 ± 2.9 mm Hg; P < .001). Patients in the dextran group required less intravenous fluid during CPB (1090 ± 499 versus 1437 ± 543 mL; P= .004) and net fluid balance was less positive 12 hours after surgery (1431 ± 741 versus 1901 ± 922 mL; P= .014). Plasma-free hemoglobin was significantly lower in the dextran group 2 hours after CPB (0.18 ± 0.11 versus 0.41 ± 0.33; P= .001). There were no significant differences in bleeding, transfusion requirements, organ function, systemic inflammation, or brain and myocardial injury markers between groups at any time point. Our results suggest that a hyperoncotic dextran-based priming solution preserves intraoperative colloid oncotic pressure compared with crystalloid prime. Larger studies with clinically valid end points are necessary to evaluate hyperoncotic prime solutions further.

15.9% organic tandem solar cell with extended near-infrared absorption

Stacking single-junction organic solar cells is effective in increasing the power conversion efficiency (PCE) by reducing the thermalization loss and increasing the open circuit voltage. Recent developments of non-fullerene acceptors (NFAs) offer a range of materials whose energy gaps are suited for absorbing relatively narrow slices of the solar spectrum, thus easing requirements for current balance between sub-elements in multijunction stacks. Here, we demonstrate a solution-processed tandem organic solar cell comprising a binary, visible-absorbing sub-cell and a ternary near-infrared (NIR) absorbing sub-cell. The ternary NIR sub-cell utilizes a narrow energy gap NFA that enables a broadened and increased absorption compared to a binary NIR sub-cell. An isopropanol surface treatment is developed to connect the hydrophilic–hydrophobic surfaces in the charge recombination zone (CRZ) located between the sub-cells. The nearly optically and electrically lossless CRZ combined with an anti-reflection coating results in tandem organic photovoltaics with PCE = 15.9% ± 0.2% under AM 1.5G simulated illumination.

Stability Analysis of a DC MicroGrid for a Smart Railway Station Integrating Renewable Sources

A low-level distributed nonlinear controller for a DC MicroGrid integrated in a Smart Railway Station capable to recover trains’ braking energy is introduced in this paper. The DC MicroGrid is composed by a number of elements: two different types of renewable energy sources (regenerative braking energy recovery from the trains and photovoltaic panels), two kinds of storages acting at different time scales (a battery and a supercapacitor), a DC load representing an aggregation of all loads in the MicroGrid, and the connection with the main AC grid. The nonlinear model of the MicroGrid is introduced, and a complete stability analysis is investigated to the purpose to meet power balance and grid voltage stability requirements. An Input-to-State Stability (ISS)-like Lyapunov function is obtained with a System-of-Systems approach, and it is utilized to develop the control laws for the converters in order to fulfill the dedicated objective each of them has. Simulation results, showing the desired grid behavior using the proposed nonlinear control laws, are introduced and compared with classical Proportional Integral (PI) linear controllers, with respect to performances and parametric robustness. The DC MicroGrid is shown to be able to operate braking energy recovery while performing load feeding and renewable energy integration and guaranteeing a proper DC voltage profile.

Autothermal Operation Strategies of Chemical Looping Processes for Hydrogen Generation: Process Simulation, Parametric Studies, and Exergy Analysis

Chemical looping is an advanced material and energy conversion technology that can achieve both high-level process intensification and efficiency. To analyze chemical looping processes, it is essential to include process conditions that are realistic and comparable to those that are expected in industrial systems. Relevant variations in these conditions as occurred in bench versus industrial-scale systems include isothermal versus adiabatic operation of the reactors and local versus global process heat integration. Naturally, the types of reactors employed dictate how the reactor operation is to be conducted from the heat integration viewpoint in the overall process arrangement. As an example, in industrial applications, a fluidized bed reactor is operated near uniform temperature conditions. A fixed bed or a moving bed reactor, on the other hand, is typically operated adiabatically, and thus under the autothermal operation, the nonisothermal condition prevails, leading to different strategies for process simulations and heat integration requirements. This study presents the chemical looping process simulation based on a moving bed reactor used as a reducer for two H₂ generation process configurations under autothermal operating conditions. The two process configurations are represented by the two-reactor (reducer–combustor followed by the water–gas shift reaction) and the three-reactor (reducer–oxidizer–combustor with water splitting for H₂ generation in the oxidizer) chemical looping systems with each configuration producing H₂ in a different operating scheme. The simulation results are compared with the conventional steam methane reforming (SMR) system as a baseline case to underscore the attractiveness of the chemical looping configurations. Specifically, for each configuration, the parametric study under the adiabatic conditions is used to optimize the operating conditions that can satisfy the heat balance requirements and can achieve a maximum H₂ yield. The exergy analysis indicates that the two-reactor chemical looping and three-reactor chemical looping systems can achieve, respectively, a 4.0 and 11.4% increase in relative percentage in the overall process exergy efficiency over the conventional steam methane reforming system.

Intricacies of Significant Imbalance as the Cornerstone of Protection against Unfair Terms in Consumer Contracts under EU Law

Significant imbalance in the rights and obligations of the parties to a consumer contract term is, together with good faith, a fundamental pillar of substantive protection against unfair terms. It is the primary tool provided by Council Directive 93/13/EEC of 5 April 1993 on unfair terms in consumer contracts with a view to mitigating differences in bargaining power between professional traders and consumer on the ever-expanding capitalistic market within the EU. The paper comprehensively reviews the meaning of the “significant imbalance” element by reference to a cross-section of judgments handed by the CJEU and Polish courts. Generally, albeit with a few notable exceptions, the former court has engaged in a subjective-objective exercise aimed at discovering what the balance of rights and obligations would have been between the parties in the particular dispute at hand had it not been for the purportedly unfair clause. Besides that, the requirement has been utilized to impose ad bolster a host of information duties levied on traders so that protection is extended to cases where the consumer is unaware of their rights or are deterred from enforcing them due to procedural obstacles or prohibitive costs of judicial or administrative proceedings. The requirement of significant balance, rooted in the idea that the disproportion of market power between the parties to a disputed term necessitates government or judicial intervention to achieve or restore contractual equilibrium, is shown from a plethora of angles: its ideological foundations, practical connotations, its emphasis on consumer vulnerability and approach to economic power. Assistance and inspiration re gleaned from Polish jurisprudence where numerous questions either unanswered by the CJEU or left to the consideration of national courts, particularly the relation between reasonableness, on the one hand, and significant imbalance and good faith on the other, as well as between significant imbalance and good faith, have been tackled.