Bacterial Lipoteichoic Acid Research Articles

Substantial fibrin amyloidogenesis in type 2 diabetes assessed using amyloid-selective fluorescent stains

BackgroundWe have previously shown that many chronic, inflammatory diseases are accompanied, and possibly partly caused or exacerbated, by various coagulopathies, manifested as anomalous clots in the form of ‘dense matted deposits’. More recently, we have shown that these clots can be amyloid in nature, and that the plasma of healthy controls can be induced to form such clots by the addition of tiny amounts of bacterial lipopolysaccharide or lipoteichoic acid. Type 2 diabetes (T2D) is also accompanied by raised levels of LPS.MethodsWe use superresolution and confocal microscopies to investigate the amyloid nature of clots from healthy and T2D individuals.ResultsWe show here, with the established stain thioflavin T and the novel stains Amytracker™ 480 and 680, that the clotting of plasma from type 2 diabetics is also amyloid in nature, and that this may be prevented by the addition of suitable concentrations of LPS-binding protein.ConclusionThis implies strongly that there is indeed a microbial component to the development of type 2 diabetes, and suggests that LBP might be used as treatment for it and its sequelae.

Bacterial lipids: powerful modifiers of the innate immune response.

The innate immune system serves as a first line of defense against microbial pathogens. The host innate immune response can be triggered by recognition of conserved non-self-microbial signature molecules by specific host receptor proteins called Toll-like receptors. For bacteria, many of these molecular triggers reside on or are embedded in the bacterial membrane, the interface exposed to the host environment. Lipids are the most abundant component of membranes, and bacteria possess a unique set of lipids that can initiate or modify the host innate immune response. Bacterial lipoproteins, peptidoglycan, and outer membrane molecules lipoteichoic acid and lipopolysaccharide are key modulators of the host immune system. This review article will highlight some of the research emerging at the crossroads of bacterial membranes and innate immunity.

Involvement of a LysM and putative peptidoglycan-binding domain-containing protein in the antibacterial immune response of kuruma shrimp Marsupenaeus japonicus.

Lysin motif (LysM) is a peptidoglycan and chitin-binding motif with multiple functions in bacteria, plants, and animals. In this study, a novel LysM and putative peptidoglycan-binding domain-containing protein was cloned from kuruma shrimp (Marsupenaeus japonicus) and named as MjLPBP. The cDNA of MjLPBP contained 1010 nucleotides with an open reading frame of 834 nucleotides encoding a protein of 277 amino acid residues. The deduced protein contained a Lysin motif and a transmembrane region, with a calculated molecular mass of 31.54kDa and isoelectric point of 8.61. MjLPBP was ubiquitously distributed in different tissues of shrimp at the mRNA level. Time course expression assay showed that MjLPBP was upregulated in hemocytes of shrimp challenged with Vibrio anguillarum or Staphylococcus aureus. MjLPBP was also upregulated in hepatopancreas after white spot syndrome virus and bacteria challenge. The recombinant protein of MjLPBP could bind to some Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria and yeast. Further study found that rMjLPBP bound to bacterial cell wall components, including peptidoglycans, lipoteichoic acid, lipopolysaccharide, and chitin. The induction of several antimicrobial peptide genes and phagocytosis-related gene, such as anti-lipopolysaccharide factors and myosin, was depressed after knockdown of MjLPBP. MjLPBP could facilitate V.anguillarum clearance invivo. All the results indicated that MjLPBP might play an important role in the innate immunity of shrimp.

Altered expression of the CCN genes in the lungs of mice in response to cigarette smoke exposure and viral and bacterial infections

The CCN proteins are key signaling and regulatory molecules involved in many biological functions and contribute to malignant and non-malignant lung diseases. Despite the high morbidity and mortality of the lung respiratory infectious diseases, there is very little data related to the expression of the CCNs during infection. We investigated in mice the pulmonary mRNA expression levels of five CCNs (1 to 5) in response to influenza A virus (IAV) and bacterial agents (Nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae (NTHi), lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and lipoteichoic acid (LTA)). IAV, NTHi, LPS or LTA were instilled intranasally into mice. Mice were also exposed for 4days or 8weeks to cigarette smoke alone or prior infection to IAV in order to determine if CS modifies the CCN response to a viral infection. All challenges induced a robust inflammation. The mRNA expression of CCN1, CCN2 and CCN3 was decreased after short exposure to CS whereas prolonged exposure altered the expression of CCN1, CCN3 and CCN4. Influenza A virus infection increased CCN1, 2, 4 and 5 mRNA levels but expression of CCN3 was significantly decreased. Acute CS exposure prior infection had little effect on the expression of CCN genes but prolonged exposure abolished the IAV-dependent induction. Treatment with LPS or LTA and infection with NTHi revealed that both Gram-positive and Gram–negative bacteria rapidly modulate the expression of the CCN genes. Our findings reveal that several triggers of lung inflammation influence differently the CCN genes. CCN3 deserves special attention since its mRNA expression is decreased by all the triggers studied.

Suppression of Propionibacterium acnes Infection and the Associated Inflammatory Response by the Antimicrobial Peptide P5 in Mice.

The cutaneous inflammation associated with acne vulgaris is caused by the anaerobic bacterium Propionibacterium acnes through activation of the innate immune system in the skin. Current standard treatments for acne have limitations that include adverse effects and poor efficacy in many patients, making development of a more effective therapy highly desirable. In the present study, we demonstrate the protective effects of a novel customized α-helical cationic peptide, P5, against P. acnes-induced inflammatory responses in vitro and in vivo. Application of P5 significantly reduced expression of two inflammatory cytokines IL-8 and TNF-α in P. acnes-treated primary human keratinocytes, where P5 appeared to act in part by binding to bacterial lipoteichoic acid, thereby suppressing TLR2-to-NF-κB signaling. In addition, in a mouse model of acne vulgaris, P5 exerted both anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial effects against P. acnes, but exerted no cytotoxic effects against skin cells. These results demonstrate that P5, and perhaps other cationic antimicrobial peptides, offer the unique ability to reduce numbers P. acnes cells in the skin and to inhibit the inflammation they trigger. This suggests these peptides could potentially be used to effectively treat acne without adversely affecting the skin.

The human CD5L/AIM-CD36 axis: A novel autophagy inducer in macrophages that modulates inflammatory responses

CD5L (CD5 molecule-like) is a secreted glycoprotein that participates in host response to bacterial infection. CD5L influences the monocyte inflammatory response to the bacterial surface molecules lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and lipoteichoic acid (LTA) by inhibiting TNF secretion. Here we studied the intracellular events that lead to macrophage TNF inhibition by human CD5L. To accomplish this goal, we performed functional analyses with human monocytic THP1 macrophages, as well as with peripheral blood monocytes. Inhibition of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PtdIns3K) reversed the inhibitory effect of CD5L on TNF secretion. Among the various PtdIns3K isoforms, our results indicated that CD5L activates PtdIns3K (whose catalytic subunit is termed PIK3C3), a key modulator involved in autophagy. Further analysis revealed a concomitant enhancement of autophagy markers such as cellular LC3-II content, increased LC3 puncta, as well as LC3-LysoTracker Red colocalization. Moreover, electron microscopy showed an increased presence of cytosolic autophagosomes in THP1 macrophages overexpressing CD5L. Besides preventing TNF secretion, CD5L also inhibited IL1B and enhanced IL10 secretion. This macrophage anti-inflammatory pattern of CD5L was reverted upon silencing of autophagy protein ATG7 by siRNA transfection. Additional siRNA experiments in THP1 macrophages indicated that the induction of autophagy mechanisms by CD5L was achieved through cell-surface scavenger receptor CD36, a multiligand receptor expressed in a wide variety of cell types. Our data represent the first evidence that CD36 is involved in autophagy and point to a significant contribution of the CD5L-CD36 axis to the induction of macrophage autophagy.

Bacterial lipoteichoic acid enhances cryosurvival.

Antifreeze proteins in fish, plants, and insects provide protection to a few degrees below freezing. Microbes have been found to survive at even lower temperatures, and with a few exceptions, antifreeze proteins are missing. We show that lipoteichoic acid (LTA), a biopolymer in the cell wall of Gram-positive bacteria, can be added to B. subtilis cultures and increase freeze tolerance. At 1 % w/v, LTA enables a 50 % survival rate, similar to the results obtained with 1 % w/v glycerol as measured with the resazurin cell viability assay. In the absence of added LTA or glycerol, a very small number of B. subtilis cells survive freezing. This suggests that an innate freeze tolerance mechanism exists. While cryoprotection can be provided by extracellular polymeric substances, our data demonstrate a role for LTA in cryoprotection. Currently, the exact mode of action for LTA cryoprotection is unknown. With a molecular weight of 3-5 kDa, it is unlikely to enter the cell cytoplasm. However, low temperature microscopy data show small ice crystals aligned along channels of liquid water. Our observations suggest that teichoic acids could protect liquid water within biofilms and planktonic bacteria, augmenting the role of brine while also raising the possibility for survival without brine present.

HDL in infectious diseases and sepsis.

During infection significant alterations in lipid metabolism and lipoprotein composition occur. Triglyceride and VLDL cholesterol levels increase, while reduced HDL cholesterol (HDL-C) and LDL cholesterol (LDL-C) levels are observed. More importantly, endotoxemia modulates HDL composition and size: phospholipids are reduced as well as apolipoprotein (apo) A-I, while serum amyloid A (SAA) and secretory phospholipase A2 (sPLA2) dramatically increase, and, although the total HDL particle number does not change, a significant decrease in the number of small- and medium-size particles is observed. Low HDL-C levels inversely correlate with the severity of septic disease and associate with an exaggerated systemic inflammatory response. HDL, as well as other plasma lipoproteins, can bind and neutralize Gram-negative bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and Gram-positive bacterial lipoteichoic acid (LTA), thus favoring the clearance of these products. HDLs are emerging also as a relevant player during parasitic infections, and a specific component of HDL, namely, apoL-1, confers innate immunity against trypanosome by favoring lysosomal swelling which kills the parasite. During virus infections, proteins associated with the modulation of cholesterol bioavailability in the lipid rafts such as ABCA1 and SR-BI have been shown to favor virus entry into the cells. Pharmacological studies support the benefit of recombinant HDL or apoA-I mimetics during bacterial infection, while apoL-1-nanobody complexes were tested for trypanosome infection. Finally, SR-BI antagonism represents a novel and forefront approach interfering with hepatitis C virus entry which is currently tested in clinical studies. From the coming years, we have to expect new and compelling observations further linking HDL to innate immunity and infections.

A TIR domain protein from E. faecalis attenuates MyD88-mediated signaling and NF-κB activation.

Toll-like receptor signaling, mediated by functional Toll/interleukin-1 receptor (TIR) domains, plays a critical role in activating the innate immune response responsible for controlling and clearing infection. Bacterial protein mimics of components of this signaling pathway have been identified and function through inhibition of interactions between Toll-like receptors (TLRs) and their adaptor proteins, mediated by TIR domains. A previously uncharacterized gene, which we have named tcpF (for TIR domain-containing protein in E. faecalis) was identified in the genome of Enterococcus faecalis V583, and predicted to encode a protein resembling mammalian and bacterial TIR proteins. We overexpressed and purified TcpF from E. coli and found that the recombinant protein could bind to phosphatidylinositol phosphates in vitro, suggesting a mechanism by which TcpF may be anchored to the plasma membrane in close proximity to TIR domains of TLRs and adaptor proteins. Purified TcpF was also found to interact specifically with the TIR adaptor protein MyD88, and this interaction was dependent on the BB loop domain in the Box 2 region of TcpF. Despite no evidence of TcpF being a secreted protein, recombinant TcpF was effectively able to enter RAW264.7 cells in vitro although the mechanism by which this occurs remains to be determined. Overexpression of TcpF in mammalian cells suppressed the NF-κB activation induced by bacterial lipoteichoic acid. A mutant lacking the tcpF gene was attenuated for survival in macrophages, with increased ability to activate NF-κB compared to the wild type strain. Complementation in trans restored growth, and inhibition of NF-κB, to that of wild type levels. No appreciable difference in bacterial persistence, dissemination or pathogenesis was observed between the wild type and mutant in a mouse peritonitis model however, which suggested either a subtle role for TcpF or functional overlap with other redundant factor(s) in this virulence model.

Bacterial toxin-inducible gene expression of cathelicidin-B1 in the chicken bursal lymphoma-derived cell line DT40: Functional characterization of cathelicidin-B1

Chicken cathelicidin-B1 (chCATH-B1) is a major host defense peptide of the chicken bursa of Fabricius (BF). To investigate the mechanisms of chCATH-B1 gene expression in the BF, we focused on the DT40 cell line derived from chicken bursal lymphoma as a model for analysis. A cDNA encoding chCATH-B1 precursor was cloned from DT40 cells. The nucleotide sequence of the cDNA was identical with that of the BF chCATH-B1. A broth dilution analysis showed that the synthetic chCATH-B1 exhibited a significant defensive activity against both Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. A scanning microscopic analysis demonstrated that chCATH-B1 inhibited bacterial growth through membrane destruction with formation of blebs and spheroplasts. Limulus amoebocyte lysate assay and electromobility shift assay results revealed that chCATH-B1 bound to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and lipoteichoic acid (LTA), which are the surface substances of the E. coli and S. aureus cell, respectively. A chemotactic assay results revealed that chCATH-B1 showed mouse-derived P-815 mastocytoma migrating activity dose-dependently but with a higher concentration, resulting in a loss of the activity. A semi-quantitative real-time RT-PCR analysis revealed that LPS stimulated chCATH-B1 gene expression in a dose-dependent manner and that the LPS-inducible chCATH-B1 gene expression was inhibited by the administration of dexamethasone. The chCATH-B1 mRNA levels in DT40 cells were also increased by the administration of bacterial LTA. The results indicate that bacterial toxins induce chCATH-B1 gene expression in the chicken BF and the peptide expressed in the organ would act against pathogenic microorganisms not only directly but also indirectly by attracting mast cells.

Thermo-Nanoimprinted Biomimetic Probe for LPS and LTA Immunosensing

A complex prepolymerized film comprising monomers, cross-linkers, and initiator is usually used to create molecularly imprinted polymers. We herein exploit ready-to-use resist materials and link molecular surface imprinting with UV- and thermo-nanoimprinting techniques to create a sensor layer for the specific recognition of the bacterial surface markers lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and lipoteichoic acid (LTA). To account for the highly polar moieties of LPS and LTA, we evaluate different resist and stamp materials of distinct surface properties by AFM and molecularly imprinted sorbent assays. Thermo nanoimprinting of LPS and LTA micelles to Epon 1002F films exhibits excellent sensitivity of up to 13 times increased signals compared to those of the nonimprinted films and negligible cross-reaction with the tested nonspecific analyte. Additionally, the sensitivity and selectivity of the thermo nanoimprints is compared to conventional molecular surface imprints using a cocktail of acrylic monomers in QCM measurements.

A new type antimicrobial peptide astacidin functions in antibacterial immune response in red swamp crayfish Procambarus clarkii

A new antibacterial peptide called astacidin was characterized from hemocytes of red swamp crayfish Procambarus clarkii, and designated as PcAst. The full-length cDNA of PcAst contained 828 nucleotides with a polyadenylation sequence and a poly-A tail. PcAst encoded a peptide of 43 amino acids, with a signal peptide of 23 amino acids. The mature peptide contained 20 amino acids, among which four were proline/arginine amino acids. Similarity analysis showed that PcAst shared high identity with astacidin 2 from freshwater crayfish Pacifastacus leniusculus. Quantitative real-time PCR analysis showed that PcAst transcripts were mainly distributed in hemocytes and gills. The time-course expression analysis showed that after Vibrio anguillarum and Staphylococcus aureus injection, the transcripts of PcAst were upregulated in the gills. The synthetic small peptide for mature PcAst displayed inhibitory activity against the growth of some Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. This peptide also had a binding ability to bacterial cell wall components, including peptidoglycan, lipopolysaccharide and lipoteichoic acid. PcAst functioned in the bacterial clearance immune reaction after V. anguillarum and S. aureus infection. These results indicate that PcAst has an important function in antibacterial innate immune response in red swamp crayfish P. clarkii.

The molecular basis for recognition of bacterial ligands at equine TLR2, TLR1 and TLR6

TLR2 recognises bacterial lipopeptides and lipoteichoic acid, and forms heterodimers with TLR1 or TLR6. TLR2 is relatively well characterised in mice and humans, with published crystal structures of human TLR2/1/Pam3CSK4 and murine TLR2/6/Pam2CSK4. Equine TLR4 is activated by a different panel of ligands to human and murine TLR4, but less is known about species differences at TLR2. We therefore cloned equine TLR2, TLR1 and TLR6, which showed over 80% sequence identity with these receptors from other mammals, and performed a structure-function analysis. TLR2/1 and TLR2/6 from both horses and humans dose-dependently responded to lipoteichoic acid from Staphylococcus aureus, with no significant species difference in EC50 at either receptor pair. The EC50 of Pam2CSK4 was the same for equine and human TLR2/6, indicating amino acid differences between the two species’ TLRs do not significantly affect ligand recognition. Species differences were seen between the responses to Pam2CSK4 and Pam3CSK4 at TLR2/1. Human TLR2/1, as expected, responded to Pam3CSK4 with greater potency and efficacy than Pam2CSK4. At equine TLR2/1, however, Pam3CSK4 was less potent than Pam2CSK4, with both ligands having similar efficacies. Molecular modelling indicates that the majority of non-conserved ligand-interacting residues are at the periphery of the TLR2 binding pocket and in the ligand peptide-interacting regions, which may cause subtle effects on ligand positioning. These results suggest that there are potentially important species differences in recognition of lipopeptides by TLR2/1, which may affect how the horse deals with bacterial infections.

Tu1620 Intestinal Alkaline Phosphatase Is an Endogenous Anti-Inflammatory Factor

Introduction: Intestinal alkaline phosphatase (IAP) is an intestinal brush border enzyme known to have the ability to detoxify in-vitro many pro-inflammatory bacterial components, including lipopolysaccharides (LPS), lipoteichoic acid (LTA), flagellin, CpG-DNA and uridine diphosphate (UDP). Gastrointestinal tract inflammation and endotoxemia due to elevated bacterial toxic components in the gut and disruption of intestinal permeability play a crucial role in the development and progression of a wide spectrum of diseases. In this study we sought to determine whether the endogenous IAP enzyme functions as an anti-inflammatory factor. Methods: We established a novel intestinal loop model to study the impact of endogenous IAP on the inflammatory activity of different bacterial components within a physiologic in vivo environment. The model was set up in wild type (WT) vs. IAP knockout (KO) mice of approximately 25 grams (n=5 for all groups). In another setting, we applied a fast (48 hours) vs. fed mouse model. Under general anesthesia, a 5 cm segment of proximal jejunum was carefully tied off at the proximal and distal ends, to isolate the loop. Different concentrations of LPS (100 ng/ml), LTA (5 μg/ml), flagellin (100 ng/ml), CpG-DNA (100 μg/ml) or UDP (1 mM) were injected into the loop and the luminal content was collected 2 hours later. Then, the supernatants were applied to RAW264.7 murine macrophage cells in triplicate and incubated overnight. LPS, LTA, Flagellin, CpG-DNA or UDP were directly applied to the cells as positive controls and endotoxin-free water was applied as a negative control. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) levels were subsequently measured by sandwich ELISA. Results: All studied bacterial components induced a marked increase in TNFα levels from the RAW264.7 cells, whereas little TNF-α was seen in the case of endotoxinfree water alone. The luminal contents from the WT mice resulted in significantly lower TNF-α levels compared to the luminal contents from the KO mice for all studied bacterial toxins: LPS (600.9±75.47 vs. 946.2±55.99 pg/ml, p= 0.006), LTA (223.1±62.85 vs. 536.2±54.64 pg/ml, p= 0.005), flagellin (679.9±60.05 vs. 1008.8±61.15 pg/ml, p= 0.005), CpG-DNA (638.7±61.81 vs. 949.6±57.36 pg/ml , p= 0.006) and UDP (212.5±15.77 vs. 312.6±26.60 pg/ml, p= 0.012). Luminal contents from fed mice resulted in lower TNF-a levels compared to fasted mice for LPS (585.4±76.35 vs. 900.2±63.62 pg/ml, p=0.013). Conclusions: IAP detoxifies and prevents the inflammatory effects of LPS, LTA, flagellin, CpG-DNA and UDP in the gut. The loss of IAP expression that occurs with fasting could be responsible for the systemic sepsis syndrome seen in critically ill patients.

The crystal structure of human soluble CD14 reveals a bent solenoid with a hydrophobic amino-terminal pocket.

Human monocyte differentiation Ag CD14 is a pattern recognition receptor that enhances innate immune responses to infection by sensitizing host cells to bacterial LPS (endotoxin), lipoproteins, lipoteichoic acid, and other acylated microbial products. CD14 physically delivers these lipidated microbial products to various TLR signaling complexes that subsequently induce intracellular proinflammatory signaling cascades upon ligand binding. The ensuing cellular responses are usually protective to the host but can also result in host fatality through sepsis. In this work, we have determined the x-ray crystal structure of human CD14. The structure reveals a bent solenoid typical of leucine-rich repeat proteins with an amino-terminal pocket that presumably binds acylated ligands including LPS. Comparison of human and mouse CD14 structures shows great similarity in overall protein fold. However, compared with mouse CD14, human CD14 contains an expanded pocket and alternative rim residues that are likely to be important for LPS binding and cell activation. The x-ray crystal structure of human CD14 presented in this article may foster additional ligand-bound structural studies, virtual docking studies, and drug design efforts to mitigate LPS-induced sepsis and other inflammatory diseases.

Equine platelets inhibit E. coli growth and can be activated by bacterial lipopolysaccharide and lipoteichoic acid although superoxide anion production does not occur and platelet activation is not associated with enhanced production by neutrophils

Activated platelets can contribute to host defense through release of products with bactericidal actions such as antimicrobial peptides and reactive oxygen species (ROS), as well as by forming heterotypic aggregates with neutrophils and enhancing their antimicrobial properties. Whilst release of vasoactive mediators from equine platelets in response to stimuli including bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) has been documented, neither ROS production, nor the effects of activated platelets on equine neutrophil ROS production, have been reported. This study first sought evidence that activated equine platelets inhibit bacterial growth. Platelet superoxide production in response to stimuli including Escherichia coli-derived LPS and lipoteichoic acid (LTA) from Staphylococcus aureus was then determined. The ability of LPS and LTA to up-regulate platelet P-selectin expression and induce platelet–neutrophil aggregate formation was investigated and the effect of co-incubating activated platelets with neutrophils on superoxide production measured.Growth of E. coli was inhibited in a time-dependent manner, and to a similar extent, by addition of platelet rich plasma (PRP) or platelet poor plasma (PPP) obtained by centrifugation of PRP. Activation of platelets in PRP by addition of thrombin led to a significant increase in the inhibitory action between 0.5 and 2h.Although phorbol myristate acetate (PMA) caused superoxide production by equine platelets in a protein kinase C-dependent manner, thrombin, platelet activating factor (PAF), LPS, LTA and formyl-methionyl-leucyl phenylalanine (FMLP) were without effect. LPS and LTA did induce platelet activation, measured as an increase in P-selectin expression (% positive cells: 17±3 (un-stimulated); 63±6 (1μg/ml LPS); 64±6 (1μg/ml LTA); n=5) but not platelet superoxide production or heterotypic aggregate formation. Co-incubation of activated platelets with neutrophils did not increase neutrophil superoxide production.This study has demonstrated for the first time that when activated, equine platelets, like those of other species, are capable of releasing ROS that could assist in bacterial killing. However, the findings suggest that neither superoxide production by platelets nor enhancement of production by neutrophils is likely to play a significant role. Nevertheless, as has been reported in man, equine PPP and PRP did inhibit E. coli growth in vitro, and addition of thrombin significantly increased the inhibitory effect of PRP. This suggests that products released from activated platelets could contribute to antimicrobial activity in the horse. The factors in equine plasma and released by activated platelets that are responsible for inhibiting bacterial growth have yet to be determined.

The Clearly Misunderstood Case of ApoB-100

Apolipoprotein B-100 and low-density lipoprotein bind to bacterial lipoteichoic acid and interfere with the antibacterial immune response.

A novel role for lipid droplets in the organismal antibacterial response.

We previously discovered histones bound to cytosolic lipid droplets (LDs); here we show that this forms a cellular antibacterial defense system. Sequestered on droplets under normal conditions, in the presence of bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or lipoteichoic acid (LTA), histones are released from the droplets and kill bacteria efficiently in vitro. Droplet-bound histones also function in vivo: when injected into Drosophila embryos lacking droplet-bound histones, bacteria grow rapidly. In contrast, bacteria injected into embryos with droplet-bound histones die. Embryos with droplet-bound histones displayed more than a fourfold survival advantage when challenged with four different bacterial species. Our data suggests that this intracellular antibacterial defense system may function in adult flies, and also potentially in mice.DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.00003.001.

CYP3A‐dependent drug metabolism is reduced in bacterial inflammation in mice

Gene expression of Cyp3a11 is reduced by activation of Toll-like receptors (TLRs) by Gram-negative or Gram-positive bacterial components, LPS or lipoteichoic acid (LTA) respectively. The primary adaptor protein in the TLR signalling pathway, TIRAP, plays differential roles in LPS- and LTA-mediated down-regulations of Cyp3a11 mRNA. Here, we have determined the functional relevance of these findings by pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) analysis of the Cyp3a substrate midazolam in mice. Midazolam is also metabolized by Cyp2c in mice. Adult male C57BL/6, TIRAP+/+ and TIRAP-/- mice were pretreated with saline, LPS (2 mg·kg⁻¹) or LTA (6 mg·kg⁻¹). Cyp3a11 protein expression, activity and PK/PD studies using midazolam were performed. Cyp3a11 protein expression in LPS- or LTA-treated mice was reduced by 95% and 60% compared with saline-treated mice. Cyp3a11 activity was reduced by 70% in LPS- or LTA-treated mice. Plasma AUC of midazolam was increased two- to threefold in LPS- and LTA-treated mice. Plasma levels of 1'-OHMDZ decreased significantly only in LTA-treated mice. Both LPS and LTA decreased AUC of 1'-OHMDZ-glucuronide. In the PD study, sleep time was increased by ∼2-fold in LPS- and LTA-treated mice. LTA-mediated decrease in Cyp3a11 protein expression and activity was dependent on TIRAP. In PK/PD correlation, AUC of midazolam was increased only in LPS-treated mice compared with saline-treated mice. LPS or LTA altered PK/PD of midazolam. This is the first study to demonstrate mechanistic differences in regulation of metabolite formation of a clinically relevant drug by Gram-negative or Gram-positive bacterial endotoxins.

Surface immobilization chemistry influences peptide‐based detection of lipopolysaccharide and lipoteichoic acid

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) have recently gained attention as potentially valuable diagnostic and therapeutic agents. The utilization of these peptides for diagnostic purposes relies on the ability to immobilize them on the surface of a detection platform in a predictable and reliable manner that facilitates target binding. The method for attachment of peptides to a solid support is guided by peptide length, amino acid composition, secondary structure, and the nature of the underlying substrate. While immobilization methods that target amine groups of amino acid sequences are widely used, they can result in heterogeneous conjugation at multiple sites on a peptide and have direct implications for peptide presentation and function. Using two types of commercial amine-reactive microtiter plates, we described the effects of analogous immobilization chemistries on the surface attachment of AMPs and their differential binding interaction with Gram-specific bacterial biomarkers, lipopolysaccharide and lipoteichoic acid. As might be expected, differences in overall binding affinities were noted when comparing AMPs immobilized on the two types of plates. However, the two-amine-targeted linking chemistries also affected the specificity of the attached peptides; lipopolysaccharide generally demonstrated a preference for peptides immobilized on one type of plate, while (when observed at all) lipoteichoic acid bound preferentially to AMPs immobilized on the other type of plate. These results demonstrate the potential for tuning not only the binding affinities but also the specificities of immobilized AMPs by simple alterations in linking strategy.