Retroarc Research Articles

The Mono Arch, eastern Sierra region, California: dynamic topography associated with upper-mantle upwelling?

A broad, topographic flexure localized east of and over the central and southern Sierra Nevada, herein named the Mono Arch, apparently represents crustal response to lithospheric and/or upper-mantle processes, probably dominated by mantle upwelling within the continental interior associated Pacific–North American plate-boundary deformation. This zone of flexure is identified through comparison between the topographic characteristics of the active Cascade volcanic arc and backarc regions with the analogous former arc and backarc in the Sierra Nevada and eastern Sierra Nevada. Serial topographic profiles measured normal to the modern Cascade backarc reveal an accordance of topographic lows defined by valley floors with an average minimum elevation of ∼1400–1500 m for over 175 km to the southeast. Although the accordance drops in elevation slightly to the south, the modern Cascade backarc region is remarkably level, and is characterized by relief up to ∼750 m above this baseline elevation. By contrast, serial topographic profiles over the former arc and backarc transitions of the eastern Sierra region exhibit a regional anticlinal warping defined by accordant valley floors and by a late Miocene–early Pliocene erosion surface and associated deposits. The amplitude of this flexure above regionally flat baseline elevations to the east varies spatially along the length of the former Sierran arc, with a maximum of ∼1000 m centred over the Bridgeport Basin. The total zone of flexure is approximately 350 km long N–S and 100 km wide E–W, and extends from Indian Wells Valley in the south to the Sonora Pass region in the north. Previous geophysical, petrologic, and geodetic studies suggest that the Mono Arch overlies a zone of active mantle upwelling. This region also represents a zone crustal weakness formerly exploited by the middle-to-late Miocene arc and is presently the locus of seismic and volcanic activities. This seismic zone, which lies east of the Sierra Nevada block, includes the northern and central Walker Lane in Nevada and the eastern California shear zone to the south in California. Vertical patterns of surface deformation over this region are characterized by west tilting of the Sierra Nevada block and by block faulting of a late Miocene erosion surface east of the Sierra Nevada.

Two contrasting magmatic types coexist after the cessation of back-arc spreading

Amongst island arcs, Izu–Bonin is remarkable as it has widespread, voluminous and long-lived volcanism behind the volcanic front. In the central part of the arc this volcanism is represented by a series of seamount chains which extend nearly 300 km into the back-arc from the volcanic front. These back-arc seamount chains were active between 17 and 3 Ma, which is the period between the cessation of spreading in the Shikoku Basin and the initiation of currently active rifting just behind the Quaternary volcanic front. In this paper we present new age, chemical and isotopic data from the hitherto unexplored seamounts which formed furthest from the active volcanic front. Some of the samples come from volcanoes at the western limit of the back-arc seamount chains. Others are collected from seamounts of various sizes which lie on the Shikoku Basin crust (East Shikoku Basin seamounts). The westernmost magmatism we have sampled is manifested as a series of volcanic edifices that trace the extinct spreading centre of the Shikoku Basin known as the Kinan Seamount Chain (KSC). Chemically, enrichment in fluid-mobile elements and depletion in HFSE relative to MORB indicates that the back-arc seamount chains and the East Shikoku Basin seamounts have a significant contribution of slab-derived material. In this context these volcanoes can be regarded as a manifestation of arc magmatism and distinct from the MORB-like lavas of the Shikoku back-arc basin. 40Ar/ 39Ar ages range from 15.7 to 9.6 Ma for the East Shikoku Basin seamounts, indicating this arc magmatism started immediately after the Shikoku Basin stopped spreading. Although the KSC volcanoes are found to be contemporaneous with the seamount chains and East Shikoku Basin seamounts, their chemical characteristics are very different. Unlike the calc-alkaline seamount chains, the KSC lavas range from medium-K to shoshonitic alkaline basalt. Their trace element characteristics indicate the absence of a subduction influence and their radiogenic isotope systematics reflect a mantle source combining a Philippine Sea MORB composition and an enriched mantle component (EM-1). One of the most remarkable features of the KSC is that their geochemistry has a distinct temporal variation. Element ratios such as Nb/Zr and concentrations of incompatible elements such as K 2O increase with decreasing age and reach a maximum at ca. 7 Ma when the KSC ceased activity. Based on the chemical and temporal information from all the data across the back-arc region, we have identified two contrasting yet contemporaneous magmatic provinces. These share a tectonic platform, but have separate magmatic roots; one stemming from subduction flux and the other from post-spreading asthenospheric melting.

The belt of metagabbros of La Pampa: Lower Paleozoic back-arc magmatism in south-central Argentina

Combined geological, geochronological, geochemical and geophysical studies have led to identification of a large (∼300 km long, ∼5 km wide) N–S trending belt of metagabbros in the province of La Pampa, south-central Argentina. This belt, though only poorly exposed in the localities of Valle Daza and Sierra de Lonco Vaca, stands out in the geophysical data (aeromagnetics and gravity). Modeling of the aeromagnetic data permits estimation of the geometry of the belt of metagabbros and surrounding rocks. The main rock type exposed is metagabbros with relict magmatic nucleii where layering is preserved. A counterclockwise P–T evolution affected these rocks, i.e., during the Middle Ordovician the protolith reached an initial granulite facies of metamorphism (M1), evolving to amphibolite facies (M2). During the Upper Devonian, a retrograde, greenschist facies metamorphism (M3) partially affected the metagabbros. The whole-rock Sm–Nd data suggest a juvenile source from a depleted mantle, with model ages ranging from 552 to 574 Ma, and positive Epsilon values of 6.51–6.82. A crystallization age of 480 Ma is based on geological considerations, i.e. geochronological data of the host rocks as well as comparisons with the Las Aguilas mafic–ultramafic belt of Sierra de San Luis (central Argentina). The geochemical studies indicate an enriched MORB and back-arc signature. The La Pampa metagabbros are interpreted to be originated as a result of the extension that took place in a back-arc setting coevally with the Famatinian magmatic arc (very poorly exposed in the western part of the study area). The extensional event was ´aborted´ by the collision of the Cuyania terrane with Pampia-Gondwana in the Middle Ordovician, causing deformation and metamorphism throughout the arc–back-arc region. The similarities between the La Pampa metagabbros and the mafic–ultramafic Las Aguilas belt of the Sierra de San Luis are very conspicuous, for example, the age (Lower Paleozoic), geochemical signature and timing of metamorphism (dated at ca. 465 Ma in the study area), which allow definition of a single, mafic back-arc belt in central Argentina, from San Luis to La Pampa.

The Fukuyama volcanic rocks: Submarine composite volcano in the Late Miocene to Early Pliocene Akita–Yamagata back-arc basin, northeast Honshu, Japan

The Fukuyama Volcanic Rocks are composed of pyroxene andesite (FKV-1), hornblende-pyroxene andesite (FKV-2), biotite-hornblende dacite (FKV-3) and volcaniclastic debris-flow deposits and/or turbidites. FKV-1, FKV-2 and FKV-3 are medium-K calc-alkaline rocks depleted in Nd, similar to other back-arc volcanic rocks of the northeast Japan arc and constitute a dome cluster at Fukuyama. Volcaniclastic beds surround the dome cluster and thin and fine upwards. The predominant clast type in the volcaniclastic beds changes upwards from pyroxene andesite, through hornblende–pyroxene andesite, to biotite–hornblende dacite, consistent with the stratigraphic relationships of FKV-1, FKV-2 and FKV-3 lavas. All the siltstones inter-bedded with the volcaniclastic beds and overlying the whole succession contain diatom fossils indicative of the lower part of the Thalassionema schraderi zone (7.8 Ma to 8.5 Ma), compatible with the isotopic ages of FKV-1, FKV-2 and FKV-3. The Fukuyama volcano has a total eruption volume of 60–100 km 3, with a lifetime of the order of 10 5 years, as typically observed for volcanoes in the present back-arc region of northeast Honshu. FKV-1 erupted in deep water and partly disintegrated into hyaloclastite breccias due to direct contact with water. FKV-2 lava repeatedly effused over the FKV-1 lava and produced a volcanic apron of breccias that eventually grew above wave base and was eroded by wave action. The magma of FKV-3 was probably hydrous as it contains biotite and hornblende. The FKV-3 magma could have explosively erupted from a shallow-water dome or vent emergent above the wave base, followed by growth of a degassing lava dome. Repose between eruptions allowed accumulation of silt, and after the Fukuyama eruptions ceased silt entirely mantled the volcano. A small magma supply rate perhaps allowed a relatively long period of quiescence between eruptions of FKV-1, FKV-2 and FKV-3 magmas, resulting in abrasion and reworking of volcanic fragments and accumulation of non-volcanic sediments that constitute part of the volcaniclastic apron. Oil generated in the contemporaneous or underlying sediments, migrated to the upper levels of the volcaniclastic apron and accumulated there under the thick cover of fine-grained sediments that mantle the volcano.

Early Miocene parallel dike swarms in the Tsuruga Bay area, back-arc side of central Japan

We analyzed Early Miocene dike swarms in the Tsuruga Bay area, Fukui Prefecture, Japan, with the aim of understanding the stress field that accompanied the formation of the Japan Sea back-arc basin. The dikes have coherent strikes of N50−60° E and are about 20 Ma in age, based on new K/Ar data and previous radiometric ages. The dominant NE−SW strike is consistent with the trends of other 20-Ma parallel dike swarms found on the back-arc side of central Honshu, indicating a regional tectonic stress with a NE−SW maximum horizontal compressive axis and a NW−SE minimum principal stress axis. The back-arc region of central Honshu was probably subject to a NW−SE extension at ∼20 Ma.

An Andean type Palaeozoic convergence in the Bohemian Massif

The geological inventory of the Variscan Bohemian Massif can be summarized as a result of Early Devonian subduction of the Saxothuringian ocean of unknown size underneath the eastern continental plate represented by the present-day Teplá-Barrandian and Moldanubian domains. During mid-Devonian, the Saxothuringian passive margin sequences and relics of Ordovician oceanic crust have been obducted over the Saxothuringian basement in conjunction with extrusion of the Teplá-Barrandian middle crust along the so-called Teplá suture zone. This event was connected with the development of the magmatic arc further east, together with a fore-arc basin on the Teplá-Barrandian crust. The back-arc region – the future Moldanubian zone – was affected by lithospheric thinning which marginally affected also the eastern Brunia continental crust. The subduction stage was followed by a collisional event caused by the arrival of the Saxothuringian continental crust that was associated with crustal thickening and the development of the orogenic root system in the magmatic arc and back-arc region of the orogen. The thickening was associated with depression of the Moho and the flux of the Saxothuringian felsic crust into the root area. Originally subhorizontal anisotropy in the root zone was subsequently folded by crustal-scale cusp folds in front of the Brunia backstop. During the Visean, the Brunia continent indented the thickened crustal root, resulting in the root's massive shortening causing vertical extrusion of the orogenic lower crust, which changed to a horizontal viscous channel flow of extruded lower crustal material in the mid- to supra-crustal levels. Hot orogenic lower crustal rocks were extruded: (1) in a narrow channel parallel to the former Teplá suture surface; (2) in the central part of the root zone in the form of large scale antiformal structure; and (3) in form of hot fold nappe over the Brunia promontory, where it produced Barrovian metamorphism and subsequent imbrications of its upper part. The extruded deeper parts of the orogenic root reached the surface, which soon thereafter resulted in the sedimentation of lower-crustal rocks pebbles in the thick foreland Culm basin on the stable part of the Brunia continent. Finally, during the Westfalian, the foreland Culm wedge was involved into imbricated nappe stack together with basement and orogenic channel flow nappes.

Accretionary orogens through Earth history

Abstract Accretionary orogens form at intraoceanic and continental margin convergent plate boundaries. They include the supra-subduction zone forearc, magmatic arc and back-arc components. Accretionary orogens can be grouped into retreating and advancing types, based on their kinematic framework and resulting geological character. Retreating orogens (e.g. modern western Pacific) are undergoing long-term extension in response to the site of subduction of the lower plate retreating with respect to the overriding plate and are characterized by back-arc basins. Advancing orogens (e.g. Andes) develop in an environment in which the overriding plate is advancing towards the downgoing plate, resulting in the development of foreland fold and thrust belts and crustal thickening. Cratonization of accretionary orogens occurs during continuing plate convergence and requires transient coupling across the plate boundary with strain concentrated in zones of mechanical and thermal weakening such as the magmatic arc and back-arc region. Potential driving mechanisms for coupling include accretion of buoyant lithosphere (terrane accretion), flat-slab subduction, and rapid absolute upper plate motion overriding the downgoing plate. Accretionary orogens have been active throughout Earth history, extending back until at least 3.2 Ga, and potentially earlier, and provide an important constraint on the initiation of horizontal motion of lithospheric plates on Earth. They have been responsible for major growth of the continental lithosphere through the addition of juvenile magmatic products but are also major sites of consumption and reworking of continental crust through time, through sediment subduction and subduction erosion. It is probable that the rates of crustal growth and destruction are roughly equal, implying that net growth since the Archaean is effectively zero.

Evidence for prolonged mid-Paleozoic plutonism and ages of crustal sources in east-central Alaska from SHRIMP U–Pb dating of syn-magmatic, inherited, and detrital zircon

Sensitive high-resolution ion microprobe (SHRIMP) U–Pb analyses of igneous zircons from the Lake George assemblage in the eastern Yukon–Tanana Upland (Tanacross quadrangle) indicate both Late Devonian (∼370 Ma) and Early Mississippian (∼350 Ma) magmatic pulses. The zircons occur in four textural variants of granitic orthogneiss from a large area of muscovite–biotite augen gneiss. Granitic orthogneiss from the nearby Fiftymile batholith, which straddles the Alaska–Yukon border, yielded a similar range in zircon U–Pb ages, suggesting that both the Fiftymile batholith and the Tanacross orthogneiss body consist of multiple intrusions. We interpret the overall tectonic setting for the Late Devonian and Early Mississippian magmatism as an extending continental margin (broad back-arc region) inboard of a northeast-dipping (present coordinates) subduction zone. New SHRIMP U–Pb ages of inherited zircon cores in the Tanacross orthogneisses and of detrital zircons from quartzite from the Jarvis belt in the Alaska Range (Mount Hayes quadrangle) include major 2.0–1.7 Ga clusters and lesser 2.7–2.3 Ga clusters, with subordinate 3.2, 1.4, and 1.1 Ga clusters in some orthogneiss samples. For the most part, these inherited and core U–Pb ages match those of basement provinces of the western Canadian Shield and indicate widespread potential sources within western Laurentia for most grain populations; these ages also match the detrital zircon reference for the northern North American miogeocline and support a correlation between the two areas.

Pre-Carboniferous, episodic accretion-related, orogenesis along the Laurentian margin of the northern Appalachians

Abstract During the Early to Middle Palaeozoic, prior to formation of Pangaea, the Canadian and adjacent New England Appalachians evolved as an accretionary orogen. Episodic orogenesis mainly resulted from accretion of four microcontinents or crustal ribbons: Dashwoods, Ganderia, Avalonia and Meguma. Dashwoods is peri-Laurentian, whereas Ganderia, Avalonia and Meguma have Gondwanan provenance. Accretion led to a progressive eastwards (present co-ordinates) migration of the onset of collision-related deformation, metamorphism and magmatism. Voluminous, syn-collisional felsic granitoid-dominated pulses are explained as products of slab-breakoff rather than contemporaneous slab subduction. The four phases of orogenesis associated with accretion of these microcontinents are known as the Taconic, Salinic, Acadian and Neoacadian orogenies, respectively. The Ordovician Taconic orogeny was a composite event comprising three different phases, due to involvement of three peri-Laurentian oceanic and continental terranes. The Taconic orogeny was terminated with an arc–arc collision due to the docking of the active leading edge of Ganderia, the Popelogan–Victoria arc, to an active Laurentian margin (Red Indian Lake arc) during the Late Ordovician (460–450 Ma). The Salinic orogeny was due to Late Ordovician–Early Silurian (450–423 Ma) closure of the Tetagouche–Exploits backarc basin, which separated the active leading edge of Ganderia from its trailing passive edge, the Gander margin. Salinic closure was initiated following accretion of the active leading edge of Ganderia to Laurentia and stepping back of the west-directed subduction zone behind the accreted Popelogan–Victoria arc. The Salinic orogeny was immediately followed by Late Silurian–Early Devonian accretion of Avalonia (421–400 Ma) and Middle Devonian–Early Carboniferous accretion of Meguma (395–350 Ma), which led to the Acadian and Neoacadian orogenies, respectively. Each accretion took place after stepping-back of the west-dipping subduction zone behind an earlier accreted crustal ribbon, which led to progressive outboard growth of Laurentia. The Acadian orogeny was characterized by a flat-slab setting after the onset of collision, which coincided with rapid southerly palaeolatitudinal motion of Laurentia. Acadian orogenesis preferentially started in the hot and hence, weak backarc region. Subsequently it was characterized by a time-transgressive, hinterland migrating fold-and-thrust belt antithetic to the west-dipping A–subduction zone. The Acadian deformation front appears to have been closely tracked in space by migration of the Acadian magmatic front. Syn-orogenic, Acadian magmatism is interpreted to mainly represent partial melting of subducted fore-arc material and pockets of fluid-fluxed asthenosphere above the flat-slab, in areas where Ganderian's lithosphere was thinned by extension during Silurian subduction of the Acadian oceanic slab. Final Acadian magmatism from 395– c . 375 Ma is tentatively attributed to slab-breakoff. Neoacadian accretion of Meguma was accommodated by wedging of the leading edge of Laurentia, which at this time was represented by Avalonia. The Neoacadian was devoid of any accompanying arc magmatism, probably because it was characterized by a flat-slab setting throughout its history.

Mapping the mantle wedge and interplate thrust zone of the northeast Japan arc

We detected sP depth phases from three-component, short-period seismograms from the forearc earthquakes under the Pacific Ocean recorded by the dense seismic network on the Japan Islands. Then we use the sP depth-phase data together with P and S wave arrival times to locate the suboceanic earthquakes accurately. A large number of P and S wave arrival times from the relocated suboceanic events and earthquakes under the land area are used to determine the 3-D P and S wave velocity and Poisson's ratio structures under the entire NE Japan arc from the Japan Trench to the Japan Sea. Our results exhibit strong lateral heterogeneity under the forearc region and a clear correlation between the structural heterogeneity and distribution of large earthquakes (M 7.0–8.2) occurred in the interplate thrust zone. Prominent low-velocity and high Poisson's ratio zones are visible in the mantle wedge under the volcanic front and back-arc region, which show nicely the images of arc magma caused by the slab dehydration and corner flow in the mantle wedge.

Mantle transition zone structure along a profile in the SW Pacific: thermal and compositional variations

Events from the South Pacific, recorded in the Tien Shan region are studied with a migration method, to measure discontinuity depth along a profile between the Mariana and Molucca Sea subduction zones. Deflections of the upper-mantle discontinuities within and between the subduction zones are investigated using PP precursors filtered to periods of 3 to 10 s. We find P-wave reflections near the 410, 520 and 660 km discontinuities. The 410 km discontinuity is elevated in the subduction region and near the predicted depth (410 km) in the average velocity region. In some cases, we find negative polarities of the reflection from the 410 km discontinuity, which may indicate water-induced melting above the olivine to wadsleyite transition. The 520 km discontinuity is shallow between the two subduction zones, and deepens towards the Mariana backarc region: this discontinuity topography may be due to detection of both the wadsleyite to ringwoodite transition in a depleted downwelling (elevated region) and the formation of calcium-perovskite in a more fertile upwelling (depressed region). The 660 km discontinuity is split in the Halmahera slab with one reflection each near 600 and 700 km depth, consistent with a cold sinking slab and detection of phase transitions for both garnet and olivine to perovskite, respectively. In the region between the subduction areas, we find a downward deflection of the 660 km discontinuity with short length-scale (100–300 km) undulations that may reflect compositional variation.

Numerical model of heat flow in back-arc regions

We numerically modeled mantle wedge flow driven by subducting plates and its consequences to surface heat flow in back-arc regions, where an increase in surface heat flow has been observed in almost all subduction zones. In order to calculate the steady state temperature and velocity field in a generic subduction zone model we utilized a new technique which does not require a priori assumptions about the position of the slab–wedge boundary. We demonstrated that calculated surface heat flow is very sensitive to the thermal boundary condition prescribed at the base of the model for a simple temperature-dependent viscosity. Since an increase of surface heat flow is a common feature of many back-arc regions, it should be rather independent on various thermal conditions applied at the bottom. We showed that such a robust behavior can be reproduced if, moreover, a strong pressure-dependence of viscosity is taken into account. The pattern of increased surface heat flow is then stable for a wide range of settings including various dip angles and age of the subducting slab. The temperature- and pressure-dependent viscosity resulted in a nearly isothermal mantle wedge, where temperatures exceeded 1200 °C even in relatively shallow depths, and, consequently, elevated surface heat flow is consistent with recent hot back-arcs evidence. Circulation in the wedge was obtained since the employed viscosity law resulted in creation of a zone of substantially reduced viscosity in shallow depths below the continental crust.

Cenozoic geodynamic evolution of the Aegean

The Aegean region is a concentrate of the main geodynamic processes that shaped the Mediterranean region: oceanic and continental subduction, mountain building, high-pressure and low-temperature metamorphism, backarc extension, post-orogenic collapse, metamorphic core complexes, gneiss domes are the ingredients of a complex evolution that started at the end of the Cretaceous with the closure of the Tethyan ocean along the Vardar suture zone. Using available plate kinematic, geophysical, petrological and structural data, we present a synthetic tectonic map of the whole region encompassing the Balkans, Western Turkey, the Aegean Sea, the Hellenic Arc, the Mediterranean Ridge and continental Greece and we build a lithospheric-scale N-S cross-section from Crete to the Rhodope massif. We then describe the tectonic evolution of this cross-section with a series of reconstructions from ~70 Ma to the Present. We follow on the hypothesis that a single subduction has been active throughout most of the Mesozoic and the entire Cenozoic, and we show that the geological record is compatible with this hypothesis. The reconstructions show that continental subduction (Apulian and Pelagonian continental blocks) did not induce slab break-off in this case. Using this evolution, we discuss the mechanisms leading to the exhumation of metamorphic rocks and the subsequent formation of extensional metamorphic domes in the backarc region during slab retreat. The tectonic histories of the two regions showing large-scale extension, the Rhodope and the Cyclades are then compared. The respective contributions to slab retreat, post-orogenic extension and lower crust partial melting of changes in kinematic boundary conditions and in nature of subducting material, from continental to oceanic, are discussed.

Strong variations in seismic anisotropy across the Hikurangi subduction zone, North Island, New Zealand

Shear wave splitting measurements from SKS, SKKS, S and ScS phases reveal the anisotropic structure of North Island, New Zealand. Waveforms were recorded on temporary and permanent broadband seismographs. Strong anisotropy varies rapidly across the Hikurangi subduction zone. These changes constrain the width of the deformation associated with the plate boundary and define three different regions of mantle flow. Stations in the fore-arc region, eastern central North Island record fast polarisations subparallel to the trench and moderate delay times of around 2.5 s, consistent with earlier studies of North Island. This is interpreted as caused by trench-parallel mantle flow beneath the subducted slab with a possible contribution of trench-parallel fossil anisotropy within the subducted slab. Delay times increase towards the extending Central Volcanic Region (CVR) with values up to 4.5 s, one of the largest delay times measured worldwide. Strong S-wave anisotropy (7.5%) through 80 km in the mantle wedge in addition to the sub-slab anisotropy can explain the observed high delay times. One mechanism to create such high anisotropy is melt segregation of partially molten rock. A frequency dependence of this mechanism could also explain persisting discrepancies between local and teleseismic shear wave splitting measurements. To the west, delay times decrease systematically. Measurements in the far back-arc region of western central North Island show no apparent splitting. This suggests that mantle wedge dynamics terminate beneath the western border of the CVR. The apparent isotropy beneath the far back-arc may be related to local small-scale mantle convection or vertical mantle flow, possibly caused by the detachment of lithosphere.

Lithosphere–asthenosphere interaction at the Southeastern Carpathian Arc bend: Implications for anisotropy

The Vrancea region, in the Southeastern Carpathians (Romania), represents a unique case among the seismic areas in the world taking into account the extreme concentration and persistence of seismicity and the tectonic stress field. Subduction in a post-collisional phase is still active in a narrow area located at the sharp bend of the mountain belt. Our goal is to show that the particular shape of the shear-wave splitting can be interpreted in the light of the decoupling and slab-retreat processes, which hypothetically induce a specific configuration of the upper-mantle flow. Shear-wave splitting of SKS phases shows a relatively coherent pattern outside the epicentral area, suggesting a prominent NE-SW anisotropy, in agreement with previous estimations performed in Central and Eastern Europe and following the trends of the deformation field as outlined by the GPS measurements. A clear change is pointed out inside the Vrancea area, where strike-parallel polarization is emphasized. Toward the NW (wedge side), the polarization turns to a strike-perpendicular direction in agreement to an upwelling asthenospheric flow in the back-arc region (i.e., polarization aligned to the local strike of the slab). These shear-wave splitting attributes are not consistent with conventional models of 2-D mantle flow near subduction zones, nor with a sub-vertical down-dipping flow driven by the sinking of the slab. They correlate well with lateral inhomogeneities outlined by the tomography image, heat flow, seismic-wave attenuation and thermal field. We suggest that the eastward slab retreat, and decoupling between the underlying asthenosphere and the slab itself, have induced strike-parallel mantle flow, likely favoring detachment of the slab along the arcuate mountain belt. These processes are directly related to the strong anisotropy observed in the SE Carpathians. The anisotropy and GPS data suggest a strong coupling of the surface and mantle processes.

The case for persistent southwest-dipping Cretaceous convergence in the northeast Antilles: Geochemistry, melting models, and tectonic implications

Constraints on the polarity of Cretaceous subduction in the Greater Antilles are provided through geochemical comparison between the erupted island arc lavas in central Puerto Rico and potential pelagic sediment reservoirs in the fl anking ocean basins. Early Jurassic to mid-Cretaceous (185- to 65-Ma) sediment from the open Pacifi c on the southwest is dominated by pelagic chert, which is highly refractory and depleted with respect to incompatible elements. In comparison, mid- to Late Cretaceous (ca. 112- to 65-Ma) sediment from the younger Atlantic basin on the northeast was dominated by mixtures of two end members. These include (1) biogenic clay and carbonates with elevated light rareearth element (LREE) abundances, negative MORB-normalized, high fi eld-strength element (HFSE) anomalies, and low Zr/Sm; and (2) turbiditic detritus of upper continental crust composition with high LREE, comparatively shallow HFSE anomalies, and high Zr/Sm. Compositions of Puerto Rican arc basalts are inconsistent with incorporation of Pacifi c pelagic chert. Instead, patterns characteristic of high-Fe island arc tholeiites are reproduced by incorporation of up to 4% of a low-Zr/Sm biogenic sediment component of Atlantic origin, whereas patterns of low-Fe lavas require, in addition to biogenic sediment, introduction of up to 2% of a high-Zr/ Sm crustal turbidite component. The Atlantic origin of all the subducted sediments indicates the polarity of subduction throughout the Cretaceous in the northeast Antilles was persistently southwest dipping. This conclusion is supported by the presence of a lowZr/Sm suprasubduction zone component of Atlantic origin in Caribbean plateau basalts (91‐88 Ma) from southwest Puerto Rico, which were erupted within the broad backarc region of the Greater Antilles during intermediate stages of arc development.

Field survey and numerical simulation of the 21 November 2004 tsunami at Les Saintes (Lesser Antilles)

Although a few historical tsunamis have occurred in the Lesser Antilles region, their characteristics are poorly documented due to the ephemeral nature of the associated signatures. Recently, a tsunami was generated following a magnitude Mw 6.3 earthquake that occurred on 21 November 2004 between Guadeloupe and Dominica. This was one of the two largest historical earthquakes recorded in this area in the last century. A field survey allowed us to characterize the tsunami which affected Les Saintes, the southern coast of Basse‐Terre (Guadeloupe) and northern Dominica. We used these data to constrain a numerical simulation of tsunami generation and propagation. The 21 November tsunami provides a unique opportunity to further constrain the models of brittle deformation in the back arc region proposed by previous tectonic investigations, to characterize the tsunami signatures and to improve regional hazards evaluation.

Evidence of strong lateral inhomogeneous structure beneath SE Carpathians and specific mantle flow patterns

The Vrancea region, in the South-Eastern Carpathians (Romania), represents a unique case among the seismic areas in the world taking into account the extreme concentration and persistence of seismicity and tectonic stress field. Our goal is to show that the particular shape of attenuation and shear wave splitting properties can be interpreted in the light of the decoupling and slab retreat processes, which hypothetically induce a specific configuration of the upper mantle flow. Delamination and break-off processes combined with retrograde motion of the slab imply lateral asymmetry in flow geometry and geotectonic properties. Particularly relevant is the strike-parallel flow localized in front of the downgoing slab, in contrast with the steeply dip flow along the slab in the back side. The local upper mantle flows around the descending seismic active body explains the contrast of the seismic wave attenuation in the back-arc region against fore-arc region and the strong anisotropy anomaly observed in the South-East Carpathians (time delays of 1.5–2 s). Outside the epicentral area, the coherent pattern of the shear wave splitting follows the trends of the deformation field as outlined by the GPS measurements, in favour of a strong coupling between the surface and mantle processes.

3-D simulation of tectonic evolution of the Mariana arc–back-arc system with a coupled model of plate subduction and back-arc spreading

We developed a mechanical model for the nonlinear, coupled system of plate subduction and back-arc spreading on the basis of mathematical formulation for internal deformation due to a moment tensor in an elastic–viscoelastic layered half-space under gravity. In our modeling the plate subduction and the back-arc spreading are rationally represented by the increase of tangential displacement discontinuity at the plate interface and normal displacement discontinuity at the spreading center, respectively. Through 3-D numerical simulation with this model we obtained a possible scenario for the tectonic evolution of back-arc basins as follows. At the first stage, steady plate subduction gradually forms tensile stress fields in the back-arc region. When the accumulated tensile stress reaches a critical level, back-arc spreading starts at a structurally weak portion of the overriding plate. The back-arc spreading pushes out the frontal part of the overriding plate toward the plate boundary and leads to the increase of slip rates at the plate interface. The local increase of slip rates at the plate interface produces additional tensile stress in the back-arc region. The incremental tensile stress is canceled out by further back-arc spreading. Such a feedback mechanism is necessary to maintain steady back-arc spreading. The long duration of slip-rate excess due to back-arc spreading leads to the gradual protrusion of the plate boundary toward the descending plate (trench retreat). As the plate boundary moves away from the back-arc spreading center, the accumulation rate of tensile stress at the spreading center gradually decreases, and the slip-rate excess at the plate interface due to back-arc spreading also decreases. Then, the original back-arc spreading center becomes less effective in releasing the tectonic tensile stress, and new active back-arc spreading will start somewhere closer to the plate boundary. Such a qualitative scenario accords with the evolution history of back-arc basins in the Mariana region. We obtained the slip-rate excess of 7 mm/year at the plate interface and the 20 km trench retreat for the last 4.5 Myr. These simulation results are significantly smaller than observations in the Mariana region. The discrepancy between simulation results and observations can be ascribed to the effect of the negative buoyancy acting on cold descending slab, which advances spontaneous plate subduction and directly increases the slip-rate excess and the trench retreat in our model.

The Seismic Structure and Dynamics of the Mantle Wedge

Seismic imaging provides an opportunity to constrain mantle wedge processes associated with subduction, slab dehydration, arc volcanism, and backarc spreading. The mantle wedge is characterized by a low attenuation forearc, an inclined zone of low velocity and high attenuation underlying the volcanic front, and a broad region of low velocity and high attenuation beneath the backarc spreading center when present. Seismic velocities, bathymetry, and basalt chemistry suggest mantle temperature variations of ∼100°C between different backarc regions. Rock physics experiments and geodynamic modeling are essential for interpreting seismic observations. Seismic anisotropy indicates a complex pattern of mantle flow that can be modeled with along-strike flow in a low viscosity channel beneath the arc and backarc. Comparison of geodynamic models with seismic tomographic results using experimentally derived relations between velocity, attenuation, and temperature suggests the existence of small melt fractions in the mantle at depths of 30–150 km.