Adzuki Research Articles

Individual or mixing extrusion of Tartary buckwheat and adzuki bean: Effect on quality properties and starch digestibility of instant powder.

Tartary buckwheat and adzuki bean, which are classified as coarse grain, has attracted increasing attention as potential functional ingredient or food source because of their high levels of bioactive components and various health benefits. This work investigated the effect of two different extrusion modes including individual extrusion and mixing extrusion on the phytochemical compositions, physicochemical properties and in vitro starch digestibility of instant powder which consists mainly of Tartary buckwheat and adzuki bean flour. Compared to mixing extrusion, instant powder obtained with individual extrusion retained higher levels of protein, resistant starch, polyphenols, flavonoids and lower gelatinization degree and estimated glycemic index. The α-glucosidase inhibitory activity (35.45%) of the instant powder obtained with individual extrusion was stronger than that obtained with mixing extrusion (26.58%). Lower levels of digestibility (39.65%) and slower digestion rate coefficient (0.25 min-1) were observed in the instant powder obtained with individual extrusion than in mixing extrusion (50.40%, 0.40 min-1) by logarithm-of-slope analysis. Moreover, two extrusion modes had no significant impact on the sensory quality of instant powder. Correlation analysis showed that the flavonoids were significantly correlated with physicochemical properties and starch digestibility of the instant powder. These findings suggest that the instant powder obtained with individual extrusion could be used as an ideal functional food resource with anti-diabetic potential.

Different changes of bacterial diversity and soil metabolites in tea plants-legume intercropping systems.

As an essential agroforestry, intercropping legumes can improve the physical, chemical, and biological fertility of the soil in tea plantations. However, the effects of intercropping different legume species on soil properties, bacterial communities, and metabolites remain elusive. In this study, the 0-20cm and 20-40cm soils of three planting patterns (T1: tea plants/mung bean intercropping, T2: tea plants/adzuki bean intercropping, T3: tea plants/mung bean and adzuki bean intercropping) were sampled to explore the diversity of the bacterial community and soil metabolites. The findings showed that, as compared to monocropping, intercropping systems had greater concentrations of organic matter (OM) and dissolved organic carbon (DOC). Notably, pH values were significantly lower, and soil nutrients increased in intercropping systems compared with monoculture in 20-40cm soils, especially in T3. In addition, intercropping resulted in an increased relative abundance of Proteobacteria but a decreased relative abundance of Actinobacteria. 4-methyl-Tetradecane, acetamide, and diethyl carbamic acid were key metabolites mediating the root-microbe interactions, especially in tea plants/adzuki intercropping and tea plants/mung bean, adzuki bean mixed intercropping soils. Co-occurrence network analysis showed that arabinofuranose, abundant in tea plants and adzuki bean intercropping soils, showed the most remarkable correlation with the soil bacterial taxa. Our findings demonstrate that intercropping with adzuki beans is better at enhancing the diversity of soil bacteria and soil metabolites and is more weed-suppressing than other tea plants/legume intercropping systems.

Post-fumigation sub-lethal activities of phosphine and ethyl formate on survivorship, fertility and female sex pheromone production of Callosobruchus chinensis (L.)

Phosphine (PH3) and ethyl formate (EF), the two popular fumigant disinfectants of stored product insect pests, are primarily evaluated for their knock down effects without considering their post-fumigation sub-lethal activities. The sub-lethal activities (adult survivorship, fecundity, sterility and female sex pheromone production) of the fumigants were evaluated on a field-to-storage insect pest adzuki bean beetle, Callosobruchus chinensis (L.). The adults’ survivorship and female fecundity, both were dose-dependently affected by sub-lethal PH3 and EF fumigation exposures. Hatchability of the eggs laid by fumigated female adults were also significantly affected. Gas-chromatography mass-spectrometry analysis of solid-phase micro-extraction from virgin fumigated C. cinensis females revealed that the PH3 LC25 (the lethal concentration required to kill the 25% of the population) fumigated female C. chinensis released significantly less amount of the pheromone components. In contrast, EF LC25 exposure did not affect the pheromone release. This study unveils the facts that the EF and PH3 fumigation have detrimental bioactivities against C. chinensis. Notably, this suggests to consider the sub-lethal EF and PH3 fumigation rather than the dose required to instantly kill all the C. chinensis individuals for disinfestation of stored adzuki bean.

The Adzuki Bean (Vigna angularis) Cultivar ‘Hongmiin’, with Early Maturity, Large Seed Size, and Bright Red Seed Coat Color

Other SectionsAbstractA new Adzuki bean cultivar, ‘Hongmiin’, was developed from the cross between K204656 (Toyomidainagon) and SA9905 in 2008. Hongmiin showed prominent agronomical characteristics, such as high grain quality, lodging resistance, and high yield in the regional adaptation yield trials (RYT) conducted for four years from 2017 to 2020. ‘Hongmiin’ is an early maturing variety, having a bright red seed coat, and the sediment ratio of this red bean was high because of the thin seed coat. The mean plant height of ‘Hongmiin’ was 58 cm, and its yield components were 7.4 pods per plant and a 100-seed-weight of 20.5 g of in the regional yield trials (RYT). This indicates that the Hongmiin has appropriate trait values for red bean production and processing. In the regional yield trial for the four years, the average yield potential of ‘Hongmine’ was 2.09 MT/ha, which is 8% higher than that of ‘Arari’ (Registration No. 9324).Keywords : Vigna angularis, Adzuki bean, Hongmiin, Lodging resistance, Milyang 38

Bioefficacy of eight different plant powders applied as fumigants against the adzuki bean weevil, Callosobruchuschinensis

The adzuki bean weevil, Callosobruchus chinensis (L.), is a highly destructive pest of stored legumes. This study aims to evaluate the bioefficacy of eight plant powders applied as fumigants against C. chinensis. Among the evaluated plant powder fumigants, clove, holy basil, lemongrass, and turmeric powder fumigant elicited high mortality up to 100% of C. chinensis and simultaneously showed high oviposition deterrence and F1 progeny inhibition against the pest, which led to a lower percentage of bean damage and weight loss. The antifeedant activity of the plant powder fumigants is reflected by the high feeding deterrence value of up to 82.92%. Additionally, based on a two-choice test assay, it is revealed that clove, holy basil, lemongrass, and turmeric powder fumigant also have adult repellent activity. Analysis of the volatile organic compounds of those four plant powder fumigants indicated that the major constituents responsible for the anti-pest feature were eugenol and caryophyllene for clove; estragole for holy basil; α-Citral and β-Citral for lemongrass; and α-zingiberene and β-sesquiphellandrene for turmeric. However, clove powder was proved to be the most efficacious fumigant in all parameters observed since it showed high bioefficacy even when applied at the lowest dose. Our findings highlight the potential use of plant powder fumigant as an eco-friendly and cost-effective management method of stored product pests, which could be a valuable option for small-hold farmers in developing countries.

Effect of Fomesafen on the Nutritional Quality and Amino Acids of Vigna angularis Based on Metabonomics

At present, fomesafen is widely used to control weeds in Vigna angularis fields. To explore the effect of fomesafen (FSA) on the nutritional value and amino acids of Vigna angularis, the protein, fat, water, ash, sand yield, and hundred-grain weight of Vigna angularis were measured using Vigna angularis sprayed with or without FSA. A non-targeted metabonomics and a high-throughput targeted amino acid analysis of Vigna angularis were performed using the metabonomics technology of liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC-MS). The results showed that the protein (23.39 ± 0.16%) and fat (0.49 ± 0.05%) in sprayed Vigna angularis (Z-2-GS-2) were significantly different from the protein (19.88 ± 0.05%) and fat (0.71 ± 0.06%) in non-sprayed Vigna angularis (GS), indicating that a certain amount of FSA could promote the synthesis of protein in Vigna angularis and inhibit the formation of fat. A total of 63 metabolites with significant differences were screened from the non-targeted metabonomic analysis, including isoprene lipids, carboxylic acids, organic oxygen compounds, and carboxylic acid derivatives. Seventeen metabolic pathways were enriched. Five metabolic pathways with significant differences were screened according to p < 0.05, including alanine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid metabolism, tryptophan metabolism, and arginine biosynthesis, indicating that FSA had a significant effect on amino acid metabolism in Vigna angularis. Through targeted amino acid analysis, 21 different amino acids in Vigna angularis were accurately determined qualitatively and quantitatively. Among them, the contents of Asp and Glu increased under the influence of FSA, while the contents of Phe, His, and Ile decreased, which proved that FSA would cause the sweet taste of Vigna angularis to increase, reducing the flavor. Use of FSA will lead to the increase in protein content, ash content, and sand yield of Vigna angularis, while also leading to the decrease of fat content, water content, and hundred-grain weight. The use of FSA will also have a particular impact on the nutritional value, health care efficacy, and taste of Vigna angularis. The results of this study provide new ideas for follow-up research on the rational use of FSA in the field of Vigna angularis and the development of Vigna angularis health food.

Rheo-Fermentation Dough Properties, Bread-Making Quality and Aroma Characteristics of Red Bean (Vigna angularis) Sourdough Induced by LAB Weissella confusa QS813 Strain Fermentation.

This study investigated the impact of in situ-formed exopolysaccharides (EPS) in red bean (Vigna angularis) sourdough fermented by Weissella confusa QS813 on dough rheo-fermentation properties, bread-making quality and aroma characteristics of red bean sourdough bread. The EPS formed in red bean sourdough and sourdough-induced acidification improved the maximum dough fermentation height, gas retention coefficient and viscoelastic properties of dough. Doughs had a lower increase rate of total SDS-soluble gluten proteins, a low decline in GMP content and similar free sulfhydryl content to wheat dough. Resultantly, breads showed declines in baking loss and hardness, increase in specific volume and lower moisture loss and staling rate after 7 days of storage. Finally, despite a reduction in the total content of aroma compounds, new aroma compounds such as acetic acid and higher contents of 3-methyl-1-butanol and 2,3-butanediol were enriched in red bean sourdough bread. Sourdough acidification probably promoted interaction of EPS with gluten or red bean proteins through bond interactions to form structures which stabilized gluten in dough and increased water-binding ability in red bean sourdough bread. This study provided a better understanding of the role of EPS in sourdough in improving bread quality and of promising strategies to address consumer demand for nutritious and clean-label products.

Anti-Photoaging Effect of Phaseolus angularis L. Extract on UVB-Exposed HaCaT Keratinocytes and Possibilities as Cosmetic Materials.

Phaseolus angularis L. is widely cultivated and is considered a superfood because of its nutritious protein and starch contents. Nevertheless, P. angularis's effects on skin photoaging are unknown. The aim of this study was to research the effects of P. angularis seed extract (PASE) on photoaging in human keratinocytes (HaCaT) damaged by UVB radiation so as to find out whether PASE can be used as an effective anti-photoaging ingredient in cosmetic products. The antioxidant activities were assessed using 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), 2,2'-azino-bis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline)-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS) radical scavenging, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) assays. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) analysis was used to determine the change in matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-1, and MMP-3. The protein levels of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK)/activator protein (AP)-1, transforming growth factor beta (TGF)-β/suppressor of mothers against decapentaplegic (Smad), and NF-E2-related factor (Nrf)2/antioxidant response element (ARE) were measured by western blot. As a result, PASE increased DPPH and ABTS antioxidant activities in a dose-dependent manner. Additionally, PASE treatment (100 µg/mL) significantly reverted the damage induced by UVB (125 mJ/cm2) irradiation by downregulating ROS, matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-1, and MMP-3 secretion and expression and increasing procollagen type I production. To suppress MMP-1 and MMP-3 secretion, PASE significantly decreased UVB-induced p38 and JNK phosphorylation and phosphorylated c-Fos and c-Jun nuclear translocation. PASE promoted collagen I production by inhibiting UVB-induced TGF-β activation and Smad7 overexpression; antioxidant properties also arose from the stimulation of the Nrf2-dependent expression of the antioxidant enzymes heme oxygenase (HO)-1 and quinone oxidoreductase (NQO)-1. Our data demonstrated that PASE has the potential to prevent ROS formation induced by UVB exposure by targeting specific pathways. Thus, PASE might be a potent anti-photoaging component to exploit in developing anti-aging products.

Nutrient transfer and antioxidant effect of adzuki bean before and after GABA enrichment.

In order to study the nutritional changes of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) enrichment in adzuki bean germination, vacuum combined with monosodium glutamate (MSG) was used as the germination stress of adzuki bean. The nutrient transfer before and after GABA enrichment in adzuki bean germination under vacuum combined with MSG stress were studied by means of chromatography and scanning electron microscope (SEM). The antioxidant activity and hypoglycemic effect of different solvent extracts before and after germination of adzuki bean were evaluated by experiments in vitro. The results showed that the nutritional characteristics of adzuki bean rich in GABA changed significantly (P < 0.05), the total fatty acids decreased significantly (P < 0.05), and the 21 amino acids detected increased significantly. After germination, the starch granules of adzuki bean became smaller and the surface was rough Germination stress significantly increased the antioxidant and hypoglycemic activities of the extracts from different solvents (P < 0.05), and the water extracts had the best effect on DPPH and ⋅OH radical scavenging rates of 88.52 and 83.56%, respectively. The results indicated that the germinated adzuki bean rich in GABA was more nutritious than the raw adzuki bean and had good antioxidant activity. It hoped to provide technical reference for rich food containing GABA.

Differences in the content of purple pigments, catechinopyranocyanidins A and B, in various adzuki beans, Vigna angularis.

Catechinopyranocyanidins A and B (cpcA, B) are purple pigments isolated from the seed coat of the small red bean called adzuki in Japanese (Vigna angularis). CpcA and B are known to be responsible for the purple color of an-paste. The quality evaluation of the paste is based on its purple color; therefore, it is important to analyze the contents of cpcA and B in various azuki beans, which differ in the cultivar, production area, and cultivation conditions. The extraction of cpcA and B from dried beans was conducted, followed by high-performance liquid chromatography analysis. The content of cpcA and B in various cultivars from Japan, Korea, China, and Nepal was quantified. The cpcA and B content was the highest in the regular adzuki cultivar from Hokkaido Prefecture (Japan), and that of the beans from Korea and China was low. The content of the pale-colored beans from Nepal was the lowest.

Effects of Vigna angularis extract and its active compound hemiphloin against atopic dermatitis-like skin inflammation

Vigna angularis is an edible crop and herbal medicine that is known to have antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, and anti-edema effects. Many studies have been conducted on the 95% ethanol extract of V. angularis, but there is little research on the 70% ethanol extract and hemiphloin, which is a new indicator component of the 70% ethanol extract of V. angularis. To investigate the in vitro anti-atopic effect and verify the mechanism action of 70% ethanol extract of V. angularis (VAE), TNF-α/IFN-γ-induced HaCaT keratinocytes were used. The VAE treatment alleviated TNF-α/IFN-γ-induced IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, CCL17/TARC, and CCL22/MDC gene expressions and productions. VAE also inhibited the phosphorylation of MAPKs, including p38, ERK, JNK, STAT1, and NF-κB in TNF-α/IFN-γ-induced HaCaT cells. 2,4-dinitochlorobenzene (DNCB)-induced skin inflammation mice model, and HaCaT keratinocytes were used. In the DNCB-induced mouse model, VAE treatment alleviated ear thicknesses and IgE levels. Furthermore, VAE decreased IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, CCL17/TARC, and CCL22/MDC gene expressions of DNCB-applied ear tissue. Additionally, we investigated the anti-atopic and anti-inflammatory effects of hemiphloin using TNF-α/IFN-γ-induced HaCaT keratinocytes and LPS-induced J774 macrophages. Treatment hemiphloin decreased gene expressions and productions of IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, CCL17/TARC, and CCL22/MDC in TNF-α/IFN-γ-induced HaCaT cells. The phosphorylations of p38, ERK, STAT1, and NF-κB were inhibited by hemiphloin in TNF-α/IFN-γ-induced HaCaT cells. Finally, hemiphloin showed anti-inflammatory activities in LPS-induced J774 cells. It decreased LPS-induced NO productions and iNOS and COX-2 expressions. Treatment of hemiphloin also inhibited LPS-induced TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 gene expressions. These results suggest that VAE is an anti-inflammatory agent for inflammatory skin diseases and that hemiphloin could be a therapeutic candidate for inflammatory skin diseases.

Sensitivity of isolated strains from Far Eastern natural populations rhizobia, to antimicrobials

Relevance . 76 rhizobia strains differing in their physiological and biochemical characteristics from B . japonicum and S. fredii were isolated from the root nodules of Vigna radiate , Vigna unguiculata and Vigna angularis , taken from the soils of the Far East of the Russian Federation, and left for further research. Methods . The virulence of new rhizobia strains isolated into a pure culture from nodules of various leguminous crops was determined by growing bacterized seeds in test tubes (height — 200 mm, diameter — 20 mm) with a nutrient medium for plants of the following composition, g/l: K 2 НРО 4 — 1.0; МgSO 4 — 1.0; CaSO 4 — 0.5; FeSO 4 , H 3 BO 3 , MnSO 4 , and (NН 4 ) 6 Мо 7 О 24 — traces. The virulence was determined by nodule presence; intensity of nodule formation due to the strain studied was determined by the nodule number. Primary assessment of the inherent strain resistance to antibiotics was performed with the disk diffusion test. Antibiotics used for the research: nalidixic acid (30 μg), carbenicillin (100 μg), streptomycin (10 μg), erythromycin (15 μg), rifampicin (5 μg), tetracycline (30 μg). After 3 to 7 days of incubation at a temperature of +27…28 °C, the results were registered according to the diameter of the strain growth suppression zone: up to 10 mm — resistant (R); 10 to 15 mm — intermediary resistant (I); 15 to 25 mm — sensitive (S); over 25 mm — highly sensitive (HS). Results . It was found that most strains were resistant to streptomycin, erythromycin, rifampicin, and nalidixic acid, while the highest sensitivity was noted to tetracycline and carbenicillin. Strains can be attributed to the Bradyrhizobium elkanii species.

Modification of Xyloglucan Metabolism during a Decrease in Cell Wall Extensibility in 1-Aminocyclopropane-1-Carboxylic Acid-Treated Azuki Bean Epicotyls.

The exogenous application of ethylene or 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC), the biosynthetic precursor for ethylene, to plants decreases the capacity of the cell wall to extend, thereby inhibiting stem elongation. In this study, the mechanism by which the extensibility of cell walls decreases in ACC-treated azuki bean epicotyls was studied. ACC decreased the total extensibility of cell walls, and such a decrease was due to the decrease in irreversible extensibility. ACC increased the molecular mass of xyloglucans but decreased the activity of xyloglucan-degrading enzymes. The expression of VaXTHS4, which only exhibits hydrolase activity toward xyloglucans, was downregulated by ACC treatment, whereas that of VaXTH1 or VaXTH2, which exhibits only transglucosylase activity toward xyloglucans, was not affected by ACC treatment. The suppression of xyloglucan-degrading activity by downregulating VaXTHS4 expression may be responsible for the increase in the molecular mass of xyloglucan. Our results suggest that the modification of xyloglucan metabolism is necessary to decrease cell wall extensibility, thereby inhibiting the elongation growth of epicotyls in ACC-treated azuki bean seedlings.

Potential anti-obesity effect of fermented adzuki beans and their untargeted metabolomics using UHPLC-QTOF-MS

Nowadays, obesity is an ultimate public health problem worldwide. However, medical and surgical treatment methods for alleviating obesity can cause multiple adverse side effects. Therefore, in the present study, we evaluated the potential anti-obesity effect of five seeds buckwheat, pea, soybean, red kidney bean, and adzuki beans cultivated in South Korea. Anti-obesity screening of seeds showed adzuki beans with the highest lipase (77.2%) and α-amylase (60.5%) inhibitory activity. Later, adzuki beans were fermented using different lactic acid bacteria (LABs). After fermentation, Pediococcus acidilactici fermented adzuki beans displayed significant anti-obesity ability, showing the half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) of lipase (from 1.908 to 0.839 mg/mL) and α-amylase (from 0.6873 to 0.379 mg/mL) decreased markedly compared to raw adzuki beans. UHPLC-QTOF-MS was applied to investigate metabolites and their metabolic responses during fermentation. The omics results identified 121 differentially expressed metabolites belonging to organic acids, polyphenols, amino acids and alkaloids. Furthermore, pathway enrichment revealed that P. acidilactici fermentation mainly affected fatty acid, biotin metabolism and alkaloid biosynthesis pathway, which could contribute to the promoting anti-obesity properties of adzuki beans. The metabolomics methods provide novel insights into the metabolic pathway regulation of adzuki beans in response to improving anti-obesity ability after fermentation. These findings suggest that fermenting adzuki beans with P. acidilactici might be a promising method for developing functional foods with anti-obesity properties.

Genome-wide identification of acyl-CoA binding proteins and possible functional prediction in legumes.

Acyl-CoA-binding proteins (ACBPs), members of a vital housekeeping protein family, are present in various animal and plant species. They are divided into four classes: small ACBPs (class I), ankyrin-repeat ACBPs (class II), large ACBPs (class III), and kelch-ACBPs (class IV). Plant ACBPs play a pivotal role in intracellular transport, protection, and pool formation of acyl-CoA esters, promoting plant development and stress response. Even though legume crops are important for vegetable oils, proteins, vegetables and green manure, legume ACBPs are not well investigated. To comprehensively explore the functions of ACBPs in nine legumes (Lotus japonicus, Medicago truncatula, Glycine max, Vigna angularis, Vigna radiata, Phaseolus vulgaris, Arachis hypogaea, Arachis duranensis, and Arachis ipaensis), we conducted genome-wide identification of the ACBP gene family. Our evolutionary analyses included phylogenetics, gene structure, the conserved motif, chromosomal distribution and homology, subcellular localization, cis-elements, and interacting proteins. The results revealed that ACBP Orthologs of nine legumes had a high identity in gene structure and conserved motif. However, subcellular localization, cis-acting elements, and interaction protein analyses revealed potentially different functions from previously reported. The predicted results were also partially verified in Arachis hypogaea. We believe that our findings will help researchers understand the roles of ACBPs in legumes and encourage them to conduct additional research.

Construction of Full-Length Infectious cDNA Clones of Citrus Mosaic Virus RNA1 and RNA2 and Infection of Citrus Seedlings by Agrobacterium-Mediated Vacuum-Infiltration

The development of full-length infectious cDNA clones for plant RNA viruses is important for studying their molecular biological characteristics, functional genomics, pathogenesis, and vectorization applications. Citrus mosaic virus (CiMV), a member of the genus Sadwavirus, is of economic importance to the citrus industry and comprises a bipartite, positive-sense, single-stranded RNA genome encapsidated in icosahedral virions. In the present study, full-length cDNA clones of CiMV RNA1 and RNA2 were constructed based on a ternary yeast-Escherichia coli-Agrobacterium tumefaciens shuttle vector, pTY, using transformation-associated recombination (TAR) strategy. Infectivity of cDNA clones of CiMV RNA1 and RNA2 was examined in multiple citrus varieties via Agrobacterium-mediated vacuum-infiltration (AVI) through symptom observation, RT-PCR, and virion detection with an electron microscope. Furthermore, the genome-sized RT-PCR fragments of RNA1 and RNA2 were obtained from symptomatic Jinchengyou (Citrus grandis) plants infected by the cloned virus (CiMV211). In addition, CiMV211 produced typical symptoms of wild-type CiMV in cowpea (Vigna angularis) plants inoculated by Agrobacterium-mediated injection. This is the first report of infectious cDNA clones of CiMV, which may lay the foundation for research on the pathogenesis and vectorization of the virus.

A natriuretic peptide molecule from Vigna angularis, VaEG45, confers rust resistance by inhibiting fungal development.

Novel function and mechanism of a PNP molecule VaEG45 from adzuki bean involved in plant immunity. Plant natriuretic peptides (PNPs) can affect a broad spectrum of physiological responses in plants acting as peptidic signaling molecules. However, PNPs may play additional roles in plant immunity. Our previous transcriptome data of adzuki bean (Vigna angularis) in response to Uromyces vignae infection revealed association of PNP-encoding gene VaEG45 with U. vignae resistance. To determine the function of VaEG45 in disease resistance, we cloned the 589bp nucleotide sequence of VaEG45 containing 2 introns, encoding a putative 13.68kDa protein that is 131 amino acids in length. We analyzed expression in different resistant cultivars of V. angularis and found significant induction of VaEG45 expression after U. vignae infection. Transient expression of VaEG45 improved tobacco resistance against Botrytis cinerea. We next analyzed the mechanism by which VaEG45 protects plants from fungal infection by determination of the biological activity of the prokaryotic expressed VaEG45. The results showed that the fusion protein VaEG45 can significantly inhibit urediospores germination of U. vignae, mycelial growth, and the infection of tobacco by B. cinerea. Further analysis revealed that VaEG45 exhibits β-1, 3-glucanase activity. These findings uncover the function of a novel PNP molecule VaEG45 and provide new evidence about the mechanism of PNPs in plant immunity.

Phenolic profile, alpha-amylase inhibitory activity, and in vitro glycemic index of adzuki beans.

Regular consumption of low-glycemic index (GI) foods is a common strategy for type 2 diabetes patients. To evaluate the potential application of adzuki beans in low-GI foods, the phenolic profile and alpha-amylase inhibitor (α-AI) activity of four varieties of adzuki beans (G24, Te Xiao Li No. 1, Gui Nong No. 1, and Qian Xiao Hei) were determined. The starch digestibility properties and in vitro glycemic index (IVGI) of these beans were also evaluated using the in vitro digestion model coupled with 3,5-dinitrosalicylic acid colorimetry. The results indicated that these adzuki beans, containing numerous phenolics, showed inhibitory activities to alpha-amylase with the α-AI activities between 1.760 ± 0.044 and 3.411 ± 0.186 U/g. The resistant starch (RS) contributed predominantly to the total starch with proportions between (69.78 ± 2.45%) and (81.03 ± 0.06%); Te Xiao Li No. 1 was the highest compared with the other varieties. The adzuki beans were categorized into low- or medium-GI foods, and the IVGI ranged from (39.00 ± 0.36) to (56.76 ± 4.21). These results suggested that adzuki beans can be used as a component of low-GI foods.

Genome-Wide Identification of Aquaporin Genes in Adzuki Bean (Vigna angularis) and Expression Analysis under Drought Stress.

The adzuki bean Vigna angularis (Wild.) is an important leguminous crop cultivated mainly for food purposes in Asian countries; it represents a source of carbohydrates, digestible proteins, minerals, and vitamins. Aquaporins (AQPs) are crucial membrane proteins involved in the transmembrane diffusion of water and small solutes in all living organisms, including plants. In this study, we used the whole genome sequence of the adzuki bean for in silico analysis to comprehensively identify 40 Vigna angularis aquaporin (VaAQP) genes and reveal how these plants react to drought stress. VaAQPs were compared with AQPs from other closely-related leguminous plants, and the results showed that mustard (Brassica rapa) (59), barrel medic (Medicago truncatula) (46), soybean (Glycine max) (66), and common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) (41) had more AQP genes. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that forty VaAQPs belong to five subfamilies, with the VaPIPs (fifteen) subfamily the largest, followed by the VaNIPs (ten), VaTIPs (ten), VaSIPs (three), and VaXIPs (two) subfamilies. Furthermore, all AQP subcellular locations were found at the plasma membrane, and intron-exon analysis revealed a relationship between the intron number and gene expression, duplication, evolution, and diversity. Among the six motifs identified, motifs one, two, five, and six were prevalent in VaTIP, VaNIP, VaPIP, and VaXIP, while motifs one, three, and four were not observed in VaPIP1-3 and VaPIP1-4. Under drought stress, two of the VaAQPs (VaPIP2-1 and VaPIP2-5) showed significantly higher expression in the root tissue while the other two genes (VaPIP1-1 and VaPIP1-7) displayed variable expression in leaf tissue. This finding revealed that the selected VaAQPs might have unique molecular functions linked with the uptake of water under drought stress or in the exertion of osmoregulation to transport particular substrates rather than water to protect plants from drought. This study presents the first thorough investigation of VaAQPs in adzuki beans, and it reveals the transport mechanisms and related physiological processes that may be utilized for the development of drought-tolerant adzuki bean cultivars.

Genome-Wide Identification and Characterization of Trihelix Gene Family in Asian and African Vigna Species

Trihelix transcription factors play a crucial role in varied stress responses as well as in the growth and development of plants. The role of trihelix transcription factors in the non-shattering phenotype in domesticated rice is known. The Vigna group of crops has different degrees of shattering phenotypes in different species. To understand the evolutionary conservation or divergence of the trihelix gene family in important Vigna species here, the genome-wide identification and characterization of the trihelix gene family in four Vigna species including the cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), mung bean (V. radiata), adzuki bean (V. angularis) and rice bean (V. umbellata) was performed. A total of 39, 35, 41 and 50 trihelix genes were identified in the cowpea, mung bean, adzuki bean and rice bean, respectively. The trihelix genes in each of the four Vigna species were classified into five subgroups: GT, GTγ, SH4, S1P1 and GTδ. The members of each subgroup shared similar patterns of gene structure and motif across the four species. The cross-species positional relationships of the cowpea, adzuki bean and mung bean vis-a-vis rice trihelix genes were studied. Further, the Ka/Ks ratio for the trihelix genes in the four Vigna species indicated the purifying or stabilizing selection of the family. The gene expression analysis of the trihelix gene family in the cowpea showed that most of the genes express in at least some of the seed and/or pod developmental stages, although at varying degrees. Based on detailed bioinformatic analysis, a potential target for gene editing towards a possible non-shattering phenotype in the four important Vigna crops was discussed.