Aviation Community Research Articles

Bioavailable Lead in Topsoil Collected from General Aviation Airports

Representatives of the aviation community are interested in determining the environmental effects of leaded fuel emissions from general aviation flight operations. Soil is an environmental sink for lead to accumulate over time. This study measured bioavailable lead concentrations in topsoil at three general aviation airports and at one site with no general aviation operations in order to determine if general aviation aircraft operations are contributing to the contamination of airport topsoil at levels that require remediation by law. Bioavailable refers to substances that organisms can absorb, because they have access to them. Topsoil was collected from refueling areas, run-up areas, and approach corridor/departure end runways. The samples were dried and the fine fractions were separated. The fine fractions were suspended in nitric acid to extract the lead for laboratory analysis. A univariate ANOVA was computed comparing the quantity of soluble lead in the topsoil from three general aviation airports (further classified as high, moderate, and low volume of flight operations) and at one site with no general aviation operations (arboretum). A significant main effect for the high volume airport was found (F[2, 24] = 10.966, p .05). However, an interaction was observed when comparisons were made between the airport sites (n = 3) and locations sampled at the sites (n = 3) that was significant (F[4, 24] = 2.902, p < .05). Tukey’s HSD was used to determine the nature of the differences. The analysis revealed that concentrations of lead in soil samples collected from the high volume airport refueling area, run-up area, and approach corridor/departure end runway were significantly lower than the moderate volume airport run-up area lead concentrations. The results at the three airports investigated support the conclusions that the risk of ingesting lead from surface soils is low and bioavailable lead in the soil sampled from general aviation airports is not accumulating in quantities that require remediation according to Environmental Protection Agency requirements.

Griffith Brewer, “The Wright brothers’ Boswell”: Patent management and the British aviation industry, 1903–1914

From 1908, the British aviation community increasingly feared the possibility of litigation over their perceived (often actual) infringement of the Wright brothers’ UK patent that described wing-warping, their pivotal invention for three-dimensional control in flight. At the same time, Wilbur Wright first met Griffith Brewer, an established member of the British aviation community, and one of the first professional patent agents specializing in aeronautics. Although rarely considered by historians of aviation, Brewer was a key figure, who was not only instrumental in protecting the Wrights’ interests in Britain (and abroad), but also, and more importantly, paramount in safeguarding the continued growth of the British aviation industry. Hence, in 1914, rather than suing and possibly damaging the struggling aviation industry for infringement of the Wright patent, Brewer successfully sued its main customer, the British government, for £15,000. Surprisingly, Brewer accomplished all this whilst not accepting payment for his labour, claiming instead that he was motivated to do “a fair thing in the Wright matter.” Brewer’s example demonstrates the often crucial but largely invisible role of the patent agent—in this instance, in British aviation during the first pioneering decades of powered flight.

Evolving WAAS to Serve L1/L5 Users

GPS has launched its first L5 capable satellites and plans to achieve L5 Full Operational Capability (FOC) in the 2019 time frame. L5 is of great interest to the Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) and the aviation community, as it will allow aircraft to measure and remove the ionospheric delay affecting each ranging observation. Currently, this error source is the most significant cause of unavailability for WAAS users. Its elimination will result in greater performance and a larger service area under WAAS. However, in order to take advantage of L5, both the aircraft and WAAS will need to be updated. We have previously recommended changes to the airborne protection level calculations to exploit these new signals. In this paper we describe changes that should then be made to WAAS to support the new protection level equations and provide dual-frequency service. Copyright © 2012 Institute of Navigation

Alcohol Abuse or Dependence in the Military Aviator: Guidance for the Non-Flight Surgeon

Alcohol is tightly interwoven with the image and culture of aviation. When alcohol is combined with aviation, the result can be fatal to aircrew, passengers, and bystanders. Alcohol has been implicated in 8 to 12% of fatal general aviation accidents. With approximately 10% of the general population estimated to have alcohol abuse or dependence, alcohol issues are similarly common among aviators. Clear and concise guidelines exist to address alcohol disorders in both civilian and military aviation. However, few health care providers outside the aviation community are aware of these guidelines. When an aviator presents with an alcohol disorder, the well-intentioned provider may be reluctant to address the issue because of poor understanding of the occupational implications or a misplaced effort to preserve the aviator's career. However, proper therapy often permits the aviator to continue flying duties without adverse career impact. This review will discuss the implications, guidelines, and prognosis for the alcohol-dependent aviator and provide resources to enable the responsible health care provider to return the pilot to flight status as soon as practicable. Knowledge of these civilian and military guidelines will help close the treatment and communication gaps between aeromedical specialists and other medical professionals.

Workshop Addresses Aviation Community

Workshop Addresses Aviation Community

Ten Years of Spatial Disorientation in U.S. Army Rotary-Wing Operations

Spatial disorientation (SD) has plagued aviation since its inception, contributing to numerous lost lives, destroyed or damaged aircraft, and a reduction in operational mission effectiveness. Military rotary-wing (RW) operations are not immune. The U.S. Army has retired many "legacy aircraft" represented in older studies, developed new training regimens for aircrew, continued to expand its night vision capabilities, and has prosecuted combat operations for some 10 yr utilizing new tactics, techniques, and procedures. For these reasons, it is important and relevant to re-engage the subject of SD among accidents within the Army's RW community. The U.S. Army's Combat Readiness/Safety Center database at Fort Rucker, AL, was queried for the previous 10 yr RW mishaps from fiscal year (FY) 2002 through FY 2011 (FY11 current through 01 July). Accidents identified as having SD as a contributing factor were selected. From FY 2002 to FY 2011, there were 100 Class A through C rotary-wing flight mishaps involving SD. This represents 11% of all Class A through C rotary-wing flight accidents for this period. Of the 100 SD-related accidents, 22% involved fatalities, and 39% involved fatalities and/or injuries. The total number of RW SD-related accidents with fatalities represents 31% of the total helicopter accidents with fatalities for the 10-yr period. This review of accident data confirms that SD remains a substantial issue for the Army aviation community and reinforces the importance and relevance of SD awareness, research, education, and training in RW operations.

Analyzing the Eyjafjallajökull 2010 eruption using satellite remote sensing, lidar and WRF‐Chem dispersion and tracking model

Volcanic ash forecasting is a critical tool in hazard assessment and operational volcano monitoring. The use of volcanic ash transport and dispersion models allows analysts to determine the future location of ash clouds. In April–May 2010, Eyjafjallajökull in Iceland erupted explosively. Presented here is an evaluation of the volcanic application of the weather research and forecasting in‐line chemistry model (WRF‐Chem) applied to Eyjafjallajökull. The analysis focuses on the first few days of the explosive events, April 14–19. The model simulations are presented along with multiple satellite and ground based tools to compare and validate the results. The WRF‐Chem results showed the ash cloud dispersing toward mainland Europe, with concentrations crossing Europe between 0.5–2.0 mg/m3, centered at 5 km ASL, +/−1 km. Comparisons with satellite volcanic ash retrievals showed a good agreement and ground‐based Light Detection And Ranging (LIDAR) data compared well to the model simulations. The analysis in this manuscript has illustrated the use of WRF‐Chem for volcanic eruptions, with the coupled numerical weather simulation and ash forecasting important to understand the local atmospheric conditions as well as the ash cloud distribution. We show that to fully forecast ash concentrations, to the level of mg's per m3, there is a need for accurate knowledge of the plume height; mass eruption rate; particle size distribution and duration along with a fusion of all data. Then accurate hazard assessments can be performed to limit the impact that dispersing clouds have on the aviation community and population.

10.4.2 Enterprise Integration: A Framework for Connecting the Dots

AbstractAir Traffic Management (ATM) in the United States is handled by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) using the National Airspace System (NAS), which is part of the U.S. government critical infrastructure. It is comprised of systems that are ground‐based, airborne‐based, and space‐based. It is an interwoven group of systems that effectively work together to provide the navigation, communications, and surveillance necessary to safely and efficiently transit our airspace.For more than 50 years, the FAA has been upgrading and modernizing the components and capabilities of the NAS, with activities ranging from simple updates to large‐scale replacement. The United States, as have other parts of the world, has embarked on an ambitious modernization of the Air traffic Management System – called NextGen (Next Generation Air Transportation System). We are introducing new technologies, policies, procedures, and systems to increase the capacity, effectiveness, and safety of the NAS in response to changing demands in air transportation. Development of NextGen, however, represents a marked increase in scope and complexity from these activities and, therefore, in the risk associated with the NextGen undertaking. Significant changes in the technologies employed, as well as consequent changes to air traffic procedures add to the potential for a many‐fold increase in both the number of risks to be encountered and the cost of encountering each risk, as well as an increasing possibility of actually missing the existence of some risks. These technology and procedure changes also add to the potential for new opportunities.This paper discusses the NextGen integrated framework that has been developed as part of a broader Strategic Integration Environment to address the integration challenges that must be addressed to establish a viable Systems of Systems (SoS) management approach that satisfies the needs of a diverse aviation community involved in collaborating to develop, sponsor, operate, or use NextGen.

Do Team and Individual Debriefs Enhance Performance? A Meta-Analysis

Debriefs (or "after-action reviews") are increasingly used in training and work environments as a means of learning from experience. We sought to unify a fragmented literature and assess the efficacy of debriefs with a quantitative review. Used by the U.S. Army to improve performance for decades, and increasingly in medical, aviation, and other communities, debriefs systematize reflection, discussion, and goal setting to promote experiential learning. Unfortunately, research and theory on debriefing has been spread across diverse disciplines, so it has been difficult to definitively ascertain debriefing effectiveness and how to enhance its effectiveness. We conducted an extensive quantitative meta-analysis across a diverse body of published and unpublished research on team- and individual-level debriefs. Findings from 46 samples (N = 2,136) indicate that on average, debriefs improve effectiveness over a control group by approximately 25% (d = .67). Average effect sizes were similar for teams and individuals, across simulated and real settings, for within- or between-group control designs, and for medical and nonmedical samples. Meta-analytic methods revealed a bolstering effect of alignment and the potential impact of facilitation and structure. Organizations can improve individual and team performance by approximately 20% to 25% by using properly conducted debriefs. Debriefs are a relatively inexpensive and quick intervention for enhancing performance. Our results lend support for continued and expanded use of debriefing in training and in situ. To gain maximum results, it is important to ensure alignment between participants, focus and intent, and level of measurement.

ICAO’s Latest Efforts to Tackle Legal Issues Arising from Unruly/Disruptive Passengers: The Modernization of the Tokyo Convention 1963

Air traffic demand has grown without parallel. Since each day, more and more people travel by air, it may well be expected that more and more incidents involving unruly/disruptive passengers will occur. The international aviation community is experiencing a steady increase in unruly/disruptive passenger incidents. Although these may be attributed to a variety of factors, lack of prosecution and enforcement may also help to explain this emerging phenomenon. Although, the Tokyo Convention is one of the most widely-ratified instruments ever developed under the auspices of ICAO, it presents a number of shortcomings. In order to address this issue, ICAO developed Circular 288, 'Guidance Material on Legal Aspects of Unruly/Disruptive Passengers'. The Circular sets out a model law on certain offences committed on board civil aircraft to be transposed into national legislation by ICAO member States. Unfortunately, the majority of ICAO member States have not implemented the Circular. In 2009, the ICAO Council decided to establish a Secretariat Study Group (STG). Meeting twice in 2011, STG discussed issues involving unruly behavior on board aircraft, the lack of harmonized enforcement procedures, the power of the aircraft commander and the related safeguards, jurisdiction, and the lack of clear definitions or common standards. STG recommended a holistic revision of the Tokyo Convention. On 15 November 2011, the ICAO Council agreed to convene a meeting of the Legal Sub-Committee (22-25 May 2012) to examine a possible modernization of the Tokyo Convention.

Rethinking Nephrolithiasis in Military Aviation

Nephrolithiasis is a common medical condition among aviation personnel that can negatively impact their health and careers. Due to the potentially severe consequences of in-flight renal colic associated with nephrolithiasis, current Navy regulations stipulate extensive evaluation for any aircrew member who has an instance of kidney stones. Two cases of Naval aircrew members with kidney stones are reviewed and current Navy standards regarding nephrolithiasis are discussed. Current Navy standards for granting aeromedical waivers for kidney stones do not differentiate between pilots in actual control of the aircraft and other aircrew members among aircraft personnel. Furthermore, a premium is placed on stone-free status, even for asymptomatic, incidentally found nephroliths. This policy has many similarities, but also significant differences from those of other services and those of civilian aviation authorities. This difference in protocols across aviation communities should be re-examined in order to promote more efficient return to flying duties of operational personnel without compromising safety of flight.

The Certainty of Uncertainty: Understanding and Exploiting Probability-Based Aviation Weather Products

Probability-based weather forecasts (i.e., forecasts that quantify uncertainty) have been available for certain weather elements for over 40 years; for example, the probability of precipitation forecast. More recently, probability forecasts designed specifically for aviation have become widely available on the internet through two National Weather Service (NWS) forecast centers, the Aviation Weather Center (AWC) and the Environmental Modeling Center (EMC). Although these probability-based products are generally not recognized by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) for operational use, their potential is beginning to be recognized by the aviation community. For example, the Joint Program Development Office (JPDO) Next Generation Air Transportation System (NEXTGEN) Air Traffic Management (ATM)-Weather Integration Plan cites probabilistic forecasts as playing a key role in future air traffic management decision support tools by the year 2023 (JPDO, 2010). Specifically, the JPDO identified the integration of weather uncertainty information (i.e., probabilities and confidence information) into decision-support tools as the highest of four levels of weather integration into the air traffic management system.

Perceived Effectiveness of Random Testing for Alcohol and Drugs in the Australian Aviation Community

Random testing for alcohol and other drugs (AODs) in individuals who perform safety-sensitive activities as part of their aviation role was introduced in Australia in April 2009. One year later, an online survey (N = 2,226) was conducted to investigate attitudes, behaviors, and knowledge regarding random testing and to gauge perceptions regarding its effectiveness. Private, recreational, and student pilots were less likely than industry personnel to report being aware of the requirement (86.5% versus 97.1%), to have undergone testing (76.5% versus 96.1%), and to know of others who had undergone testing (39.9% versus 84.3%), and they had more positive attitudes toward random testing than industry personnel. However, logistic regression analyses indicated that random testing is more effective at deterring AOD use among industry personnel.

Laser Illumination of Flight Crewmembers by Altitude and Chronology of Occurrence

The illumination of flight crew personnel by lasers while they perform landing and departure maneuvers has concerned the aviation community for the past two decades. This study examines the frequency of illumination events in the United States by altitude and chronology of occurrence to determine where and when aviators and the flying public may be at greatest risk. Reports of aircraft illuminated by high-intensity light sources are maintained in a database at the Federal Aviation Administration's Civil Aerospace Medical Institute. Reports of flight crewmembers exposed to lasers from January 1, 2004, to December 31, 2008, were collected and analyzed. Cockpit illuminations at or below 2000 ft (approximately 610 m) increased from 12.5 to 26.7% over the 5-yr period, while the percentage of illuminations between 2000 and 10,000 ft (approximately 610-3048 m) decreased from 87.5 to 58.4%. The months of November and December had the highest frequency of laser events (23%), while May and June had the least (12%). Sunday was the most likely day for an aircraft to be illuminated (18.3%), while Wednesday was the least likely day for such an incident (15.4%). More than 91% of all aircraft illumination events occurred between 1800 and midnight. The continuing increase in the number of laser illuminations reported at or below 2000 ft (approximately 610 m) represents an escalating threat to aviation safety. Information provided in this study may allow law enforcement to deploy their resources more efficiently to apprehend those responsible for these crimes.

Performance evaluation of network mobility handover over future aeronautical data link

The aviation community is currently working on the standardization of data communication systems for the future air traffic management. In this context, International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) has initiated a work on standardization of an IPv6-based aeronautical telecommunications network and on future radio access technologies, respectively. In this paper, we integrate L-Band Digital Aeronautical Communications System Option 1 (L-DACS 1), which is one candidate for future radio access technologies, with realistic IPv6-based network layer functionality and analyze the effect of handover delay to the TCP performance. Realistic Frame Error Rate (FER) values obtained from an L-DACS 1 physical layer simulator, which uses a realistic aeronautical channel model, are used in the simulation experiments. In the first stage, we decreased layer 3 handover latency by removing the Duplicate Address Detection (DAD) procedure for address configuration. In the second stage, we introduced a Home Agent (HA)-buffering method, which is used to buffer the traffic (destined to the mobile node) during handover. Transmission completion time is the primary performance metric in our analysis. With the HA-buffering method, the transmission completion time is reduced by at least 10% for the transmission of 110 kB of information over a wireless link with 31.5 kbit s −1 data rate.

An Assessment of Safety Climate in U.S Naval Aviation

The purpose of this paper was to carry out a factor analysis of 23,968 responses by U.S Naval aviators to 12 items from the Command Safety Assessment Survey (CSAS), and identify whether there were differences in safety climate based upon rank or aviation community. Using exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis techniques it was possible to establish a stable two factor solution. For factor one (personnel leadership) no significant effects of rank or aviation community were found. For factor two (availability of resources) although there was not a significant main effect of rank, there was a significant main effect of aviation community, and a significant interaction. These significant findings were attributed to the unique mission of training squadrons and the junior officers in them. Language: en

Work of the UK Helicopter Task Group

This article, written by Assistant Technology Editor Karen Bybee, contains highlights of paper SPE 140760, ’The Work of the UK Helicopter Task Group,’ by Jessica Burton, Oil &amp; Gas UK, originally prepared for the 2011 SPE European Health, Safety, and En vironmental Conference in Oil and Gas Exploration and Production, Vienna, Austria, 22-24 February. The paper has not been peer reviewed. The Helicopter Task Group (HTG) was created by the UK oil and gas industry in April 2009 to address helicopter-safety issues, including those arising from the tragic helicopter crash off the northeast coast of Scotland on 1 April 2009. The task group included representatives from offshore operators and contractors, including those involved in the incident, as well as Oil &amp; Gas UK, the offshore workforce, helicopter-operator companies, regulators, emergency-response organizations, and trade unions. Introduction The HTG was created to address cross-industry issues about helicopter safety, including those arising from the fatal helicopter crash off the northeast coast of Scotland on 1 April 2009. The purpose of the HTG was to act on behalf of the industry as a communications focal point for sharing information, advice, and learning across the industry and with other stakeholders on matters arising from this and other helicopter accidents, including assisting the implementation of any recommendations from the Air Accidents Investigation Branch (AAIB) inquiries. The group also defined possible policies and practices to be recommended to the Board of Oil &amp; Gas UK for approval and consequent implementation on a pan-industry basis. In doing this, it was supported by existing industry workgroups and advisory teams. The group met every 4 weeks from April 2009 to June 2010. The full-length paper is designed to summarize the key issues that the task group was involved in over that period, some of which had been ongoing work for a number of years, and what changes have been made to the offshore industry and aviation safety as a result of the cooperation between the task group, wider aviation community, existing industry bodies, regulators, and emergency-response organizations. HTG Work Plan The HTG identified a number of key aviation-safety issues at its first meet-ing in April 2009, which would form the basis of its work plan. Although many potential projects could have been chosen, it was decided that—to ensure that the group could work effectively and deliver results in a manageable time frame—only a set number of priority items would be focused on. These work areas initially were linked to recommendations arising from the lessons learned in the two helicopter incidents that occurred in the UK continental shelf (UKCS) in early 2009. As the group progressed, other work areas were identified, including some linked to lessons learned in other incidents around the world. Summary of Key Work Areas and Progress Made The following is a summary of each of the key work areas or projects overseen by the task group, and the status of each by June 2010 when the group was closed formally and its work was handed over to a new group.

The Incidence of Urolithiasis Among Commercial Aviation Pilots

A kidney stone event in a commercial aviation pilot has significant vocational implications since the Federal Aviation Administration specifically prohibits medical certification in the setting of recent or recurrent stone disease. Given these serious concerns, an understanding of the burden of stone disease on the commercial aviation community is important. Thus, we performed a study in partnership with the Federal Aviation Administration to better characterize the epidemiology of this condition. We reviewed the Federal Aviation Administration Aerospace Medical Certification database for 2000 through 2007. Pilots with a class I certificate (scheduled commercial aviation) were selected for further review. All medical certificates submitted with a pathology code of 573 (urolithiasis) were identified for analysis. From 2000 through 2007 between 3.7% and 4.6% of scheduled commercial aviation pilots were diagnosed with urolithiasis. However, during the study period there was a significant decrease in the proportion of pilots diagnosed with urolithiasis. A meaningful number of commercial aviation pilots are affected by urolithiasis each year. Our analysis detected a significant decrease in the proportion of affected pilots, although the reason for this trend is not well understood. It may be that changes in the occupational environment that could affect risk factors for stone formation are responsible. Further efforts to characterize stone risk in this unique population are welcome, given the larger vocational and societal consequences of a stone event in the setting of airline transport.

Impacts and Responses of Icelandic Aviation to the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull Volcanic Eruption

Despite volcanic eruptions in earlier times, the eruption of Iceland's Eyjafjallajökull in April and May 2010 served as a climactic point in aviation history. Stakeholders in the air traffic industry were forced to reevaluate policies, safety standards, and guidelines and to seek new methods for data collection. The geographic location of Iceland in the Northern Atlantic air traffic region places it in a critical location. Volcanic eruptions there can radically affect the European and North Atlantic air traffic. The sequence of events is described, and the impacts from an Icelandic perspective are highlighted. Interviews with key authorities in the Icelandic aviation community revealed important issues that must be addressed. They relate specifically to updating the notice-to-airmen messaging system, enhancing the ash-monitoring and -forecasting system, and developing policies that provide structure for all stakeholders to harmonize their decisions and actions.

Evaluating Sustainability of Selected Airport Pavement Treatments with Life-Cycle Cost, Raw Material Consumption, and Greenroads Standards

In the global aviation community, sustainability increasingly is becoming a priority for airport projects as a foundation for future prosperity. Pavement structures are an airport's greatest asset and greatest liability. Pavement management systems involve an intensive and expensive enterprise, and pavement maintenance projects consume massive amounts of nonrenewable resources at every airport in the nation. Little research has been conducted to assist airport pavement managers in reducing the environmental, economic, and social impacts of pavement maintenance and preservation processes. The old cliché of “what is not measured is not managed” applies, and a performance metric therefore is needed to permit pavement managers to measure sustainability. No standard, quantitative performance metric for sustainability is now in use by pavement managers assessing pavement treatment alternatives. This paper demonstrates how airport pavement managers can quantitatively analyze typical pavement treatments with a life-cycle cost analysis, quantification of raw material consumption, and the recently developed Greenroads standards to measure the environmental, economic, and social impact of the treatments for a given pavement project to enhance the overall sustainability of their programs.