Avian Patients Research Articles

Use of a point-of-care portable blood analyzer for evaluation of blood gas analytes and select physiologic parameters in the American flamingo (Phoenicopterus ruber)

This study was conducted in order to evaluate blood gas analytes using a portable clinical analyzer in captive American flamingos (Phoenicopterus ruber). Seventeen healthy flamingos were evaluated as part of an overall clinical health assessment. Each bird underwent a complete physical examination, complete blood count, and serum biochemistry testing. Blood samples were collected from the medial metatarsal vein and using the VetScan i-STAT® analyzer, tested for the following parameters: hydrogen ion concentration, oxygen tension, carbon dioxide tension, sodium, potassium, ionized calcium, hematocrit, and various calculated parameters. The different parameters of venous blood gas were described using the mean, median, the interquartile range, P2.5 and P97.5, and minimum and maximum values. A comparison between sexes revealed no significant difference (p > 0.05) in any of the observed values. The test provided rapid results and was easy to use, making it useful for point-of-care use in zoological settings, or hospitalized critical avian patients. Knowledge of baseline parameters can promote better physiological understanding and improve clinical management of this avian species.

Aspergillosis in Birds: An Overview of Treatment Options and Regimens

Aside from the therapeutic advantages associated with antimycotic drugs, predisposing factors have to be considered when treating aspergillosis in an avian patient. Predisposing influences can be affected by improving management conditions, thus decreasing the amount of fungal spores in the environment. Moreover, a veterinarian often treats a chronic disease in most cases; therefore, the treatment regimen is typically for months sometimes. The route of administration for the selected therapeutic agent is of great importance and depends on the severity of the disease condition, among other factors. Furthermore, the side effects of the individual drugs may be reduced by selecting different routes of administration. To date, in clinically ill birds, oral or parenteral administration of the drug is performed regularly to achieve a systemic effect. In principle, it would be preferable to use long-term nebulization treatment; however, careful consideration is required when determining the composition of antimycotic formulation. All currently available antimycotic agents that are in the drug market have been developed for use in human medicine. Drug dosages that are recommended for avian medicine are frequently based on the experience of individual researchers or reference values that are derived from other species. Essentially, active substances within the azoles group, as well as some allylamines and polyene antibiotics, are prescribed to avian patients with aspergillosis, with most of the patients currently being treated with azoles. Systemic administration of these compounds is effective when treating most fungal infections that involve the respiratory tract. However, treatment difficulties often occur because of the limited tolerability and the high occurrence of side effects in avian patients who are administered antimycotic drugs.

The Rise of the Backyard Chicken in Companion Veterinary Medicine

Over the past few years, the hobby of keeping backyard poultry has increased significantly in the United States. The chicken is no longer just a commercial production bird but is now also a companion bird and backyard pet. Chickens make wonderful, entertaining pets and can enrich the lives of their owners, in addition to providing food products such as eggs. Even though it has become increasingly popular to keep backyard chickens in the U.S., few studies have provided information about these flocks. A recent publication on backyard chickens in the U.S. included online survey results taken from backyard chicken owners. The survey asked about flock history, husbandry, health, owners’ attitudes, and demographics. The survey had 1,487 responses and included urban, suburban, and rural areas. Most respondents owned fewer than 10 chickens and had kept chickens for less than 5 years. Major reasons cited for keeping chickens were as food for home use, gardening companionship, pets, or a combination. The owners of these birds thought the eggs and meat from their chickens were more nutritious, safer to consume, and tasted better than the store-bought equivalent. The owners in this survey also thought the health and welfare of their chickens was better than on commercial farms. For veterinary clinicians who see avian patients, this means more chickens are being presented for health care. Veterinarians are also being asked to consult with their clients who have backyard poultry in regards to concerns beyond just health. These concerns can include legal and human health issues related to keeping backyard poultry.

Phlebotomy in reptile and avian patients

Exotic species show a lack of overt signs of disease and so it is important to investigate illnesses promptly and thoroughly. Phlebotomy is often an integral part of diagnostics to...

Nursing of large psittacines in practice

ABSTRACTThe following article highlights specific aspects of nursing with respect to the treatment of large psittacines such as macaws. Legal aspects as well as biosecurity measures, hospital set up, dietary requirements and administration of medications are discussed. Tips for handling, restraint and feeding will provide a practical guide to give colleagues the knowledge and confidence to hospitalise avian patients.

Neurological Examination and Diagnostic Testing in Birds and Reptiles

Neurological dysfunction is a frequently presenting sign in avian and reptile patients. Clinical neurological signs are rarely pathognomonic, often requiring the attending veterinary surgeon to perform more involved diagnostic tests to achieve a diagnosis. Variations in patient anatomy, physiology and demeanour present unique challenges to the veterinarian evaluating the bird or reptile that has neurological disease signs. Despite these challenges, a well-structured physical and neurological examination can often be accomplished with minimal equipment. A structured neurological examination is essential to formulate an appropriate investigative plan and therapeutic regime for these difficult cases and to provide the owner with an accurate prognosis.

Viability and discrimination of avian peripheral blood mononuclear cells and thrombocytes intended for improvement of wound healing in birds.

Birds often suffer from skin injuries of different aetiology. Platelet-rich plasma (PRP) is successfully used for improvement of wound healing in humans and in some mammalian species (e.g. horses, dogs and cats), but experience with its application in avian patients has not yet been published. Therefore, the aim of this study was to test a quick method for the counting of isolated avian platelets and mononuclear leukocytes and to find an appropriate carrier for their application to the wounds of birds. It seems that flow cytometry can be used for the quick counting of isolated cells and the discrimination of thrombocytes, lymphocytes and eventually monocytes or debris. Of the tested gels and sponges routinely used for improvement of wound healing, a gelatin sponge (Gelaspon®) providing the highest numbers and viability of isolated cells proved to be the best carrier.

Impact of antigenic diversity on laboratory diagnosis of Avian bornavirus infections in birds.

Avian bornaviruses (ABVs) are a group of genetically diverse viruses within the Bornaviridae family that can infect numerous avian species and represent the causative agents of proventricular dilatation disease, an often fatal disease that is widely distributed in captive populations of parrots and related species. The current study was designed to assess the antigenic variability of the family Bornaviridae and to determine its impact on ABV diagnosis by employing fluorescent antibody assays. It was shown that polyclonal rabbit sera directed against recombinant bornavirus nucleoprotein, X protein, phosphoprotein, and matrix protein provided sufficient cross-reactivity for the detection of viral antigen from a broad range of bornavirus genotypes grown in cell culture. In contrast, a rabbit anti-glycoprotein serum and 2 monoclonal antibodies directed against nucleoprotein and phosphoprotein proteins reacted more specifically. Antibodies were readily detected in sera from avian patients infected with known ABV genotypes if cells persistently infected with a variety of different bornavirus genotypes were used for analysis. For all sera, calculated antibody titers were highest when the homologous or a closely related target virus was used for the assay. Cross-reactivity with more distantly related genotypes of other phylogenetic groups was usually reduced, resulting in titer reduction of up to 3 log units. The presented results contribute to a better understanding of the antigenic diversity of family Bornaviridae and further emphasize the importance of choosing appropriate diagnostic tools for sensitive detection of ABV infections.

Prevalence and Risk Factors of Feather Plucking in African Grey Parrots (Psittacus erithacus erithacus and Psittacus erithacus timneh) and Cockatoos (Cacatua spp.)

Feather plucking, or the removal by a parrot of its own feathers, is thought to be one of the most common behaviour presentations in veterinary practices that treat avian patients. However, its aetiology is poorly understood. The aims of this study were to estimate the prevalence of feather plucking within the population of African grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus erithacus and Psittacus erithacus timneh) and cockatoos (Cacatua spp.) registered with 9 veterinary practices in the United Kingdom (UK) and to explore the association between frequently hypothesised risk factors and feather plucking in these species. A questionnaire was sent to the owners of 400 African grey parrots and 310 cockatoos registered with 9 UK veterinary practices. Returned questionnaires from 137 African grey parrots and 92 cockatoos were analysed, of which 39.4% of African grey parrots and 42.4% of cockatoos had exhibited feather-plucking behaviour at some point in their lifetime. Multivariable logistic regression modelling demonstrated that increasing hours of sleep and length of ownership were significantly associated (P < 0.05) with feather plucking in African grey parrots. Pet shop origin, cage location against ≥1 wall and ≥1 vacation taken by owners each year were significantly associated (P < 0.05) with feather plucking in cockatoos. The high prevalence of feather plucking in these commonly kept pets highlights this problem as a welfare concern, whereas the risk factor analysis challenges many frequently cited hypotheses regarding its aetiology. Further research is required to explore whether there is a causal relationship between the significant risk factors identified in this study and feather-plucking behaviour.

Clinical features of three avian influenza H7N9 virus-infected patients in Shanghai

IntroductionSince February 2013, a novel reassortant H7N9 virus associated with human deaths, but no apparent outbreaks in poultry and wild birds has emerged in eastern China.ObjectivesThe potential reemergence of H7N9 during next year's influenza season demand a further understanding of this important disease.MethodsBetween March 1 and April 30, 2013, we obtained and analyzed clinical, epidemiologic and radiologic features, and virologic data from three laboratory‐confirmed patients of A H7N9 infection admitted in Shanghai Ruijin Hospital.ResultsAll patients were middle to old aged (mean age 62 years) and overweight (mean body mass index 31) patients. Two patients were exposed to poultry directly or indirectly in food market. They presented with fever and rapidly progressive pneumonia that did not respond to antibiotics. Time between onset of symptoms and onset of respiratory failure (days) were 7–11 days. Two patients presented secondary invasive bacterial infections. All patients died on day 7 to day 86 after the onset of symptoms.ConclusionsCross species poultry‐to‐person transmission of this new reassortant avian influenza H7N9 virus can result in severe and fatal respiratory disease like acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) in humans. Reduplicate chest imaging examination is suggested for risky patients with fever and dyspnea. Secondary invasive bacterial infections and pneumothorax can cause severe and fatal consequence. Old age, obesity and presence of comorbidity may be associated with increased mortality. Pulmonary fibrosis can be seen at late stage of the disease.

Atherosclerosis: Comparative Pathogenesis, Lipoprotein Metabolism, and Avian and Exotic Companion Mammal Models

Atherosclerosis is a chronic inflammatory disease of the arterial wall where the accumulation of foam cells, lipids, calcium, and cellular debris leads to large fibrofatty atheromatous plaques narrowing the arterial lumen. As the principal cause of human deaths in the world, the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis has been extensively studied, as well as lipid and lipoprotein metabolism, across species. Important aspects of the disease were first investigated experimentally in a wide array of animal models, including laboratory avian and mammalian species also kept as companion pets. Although the disease is primarily a significant clinical entity in avian patients, the wealth of information obtained from companion exotic mammals is of interest to understand the complex comparative pathogenesis of atherosclerotic lesions. This review presents the current concepts of atherogenesis and lipoprotein metabolism followed by a brief overview of species peculiarities as it relates to the experimental reproduction of the disease. This overview should provide interesting insight on atherosclerosis, which spontaneously or experimentally affects many zoological companion species commonly seen by veterinarians.

Unusual Lesions of Atherosclerosis in Psittacines

Atherosclerosis in psittacines is commonly associated with lesions in the greater vessels of the heart. Unusual or atypical lesions of atherosclerosis manifest in the nongreater vessels of the heart that include coronary arteries, thoracic and abdominal aorta, carotid arteries, and medium-sized vessels in various organs. Occasionally, atherosclerosis is also observed in glomeruli and feather follicles, leading to uncommon sequelae. The most prominent and unusual atherosclerosis lesions, which have not been well described in psittacines, are severe atherosclerosis of the coronary arteries, resulting in myocardial degeneration, necrosis, inflammation and fibrosis, myocardial infarction, and sudden death. Information regarding clinical manifestations, treatment, and prognostic indicators of atherosclerosis in avian patients is pertinent in treating and offering clients the best treatment plan. A detailed description of this disease by bird species, age, sex, clinical signs, and gross and histopathological findings are presented in this article.

Study of changes in extravascular lung water index of patients suffered from H7N9 avian influenza with acute respiratory distress syndrome

To analyze the characteristic of changes in extravascular lung water index (EVLWI) of H7N9 avian influenza patients who complicated with acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), and to approach the relevance between EVLWI and severity, pulmonary oxygenation in patients with lung injury. Four H7N9 avian influenza patients administered from April to June in 2013 in First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University were studied. The patients who suffered from severe ARDS were administered with low tide volume ventilation plus positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP), namely protected ventilation strategy, with monitoring hemodynamic parameters and EVLWI through pulse-indicated continuous cardiac output (PiCCO) catheter. During ventilation, patients' parameters, such as PEEP, fraction of inspired oxygen (FiO2), arterial partial pressure of oxygen (PaO2), oxygenation index (PaO2/FiO2), cardiac index (CI), systemic vascular resistance index (SVRI), pulmonary vascular resistance index (PVRI), EVLWI, and central venous pressure (CVP) were collected. All 4 H7N9 avian influenza patients were complicated with ARDS, 2 patients were classified to severe ARDS and administered with comprehensive therapies, specially protected ventilation strategy; ventilation duration was 9 days and 30 days respectively, and PiCCO monitoring was 9 days and 21 days respectively. EVLWI of 2 patients on the 1st, 2nd, 3rd day was 10.0±3.2 ml/kg, 12.0±2.9 ml/kg, 14.0±4.2 ml/kg, and 24.0±6.7 ml/kg, 24.0±6.1 ml/kg, 23.0±5.8 ml/kg, respectively. As their conditions became better, patients' EVLWI decreased to 5.5±2.7 ml/kg and 7.0±3.0 ml/kg, respectively at weaning. PEEP and FiO2 of 2 patients were down-regulated, PaO2/FiO2 increased to 334±64 mm Hg and 142±53 mm Hg at weaning. However, no significant changes in CI, SVRI, PVRI and CVP in the 2 patients were observed. EVLWI increases when H7N9 avian influenza patients are complicated with severe ARDS. As the conditions get better, EVLWI returns to normal value gradually. There is relevance between the motive changes in EVLWI and severity of ARDS and pulmonary oxygenation.

Clinical management of an ectopic egg in a Timneh African grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus timneh)

A 13-year-old female Timneh African grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus timneh) was evaluated because of the presence of a bald patch of skin caudal to the sternum and increased territorial and nesting behavior of 2 weeks' duration. Whole-body radiography revealed a mineralized egg of normal size and shape. However, no oviposition occurred, and the bird had no signs consistent with dystocia. After 7 days, repeated radiography revealed that the egg had rotated by approximately 180° along its short axis, leading to a diagnosis of ectopic egg retention, which was supported by the results of ultrasonography. Surgical removal of the ectopic egg was performed by means of a ventral midline approach 14 days after administration of leuprolide acetate (800 μg/kg [364 μg/lb], IM). No intracoelomic abnormalities, such as coelomitis or oviductal disease, were diagnosed, and the bird recovered without complications. Physical examination and whole-body radiography at 8 months and a follow-up phone call with the owner at 16 months after surgical treatment revealed no evidence of ectopic egg recurrence or reproductive behavior. Clinical management of ectopic egg retention differs considerably from treatment of intraoviductal egg binding. Therefore, careful evaluation of avian patients with radiographic evidence of egg binding should be performed to avoid possible iatrogenic deterioration of the patient's condition, secondary to inappropriate treatment attempts such as hormonal induction of oviposition or attempts to remove the retained egg via the cloaca. Repeated radiography and ultrasonography and close monitoring of the patient's general condition as well as the lack of clinical signs consistent with dystocia will facilitate the diagnosis of ectopic egg retention.

Practical avian venipuncture: how to take blood from birds

The avian case load is increasing in veterinary practice, and there is a higher expectation on the clinician to perform accurate diagnostics and treatment. This paper discusses the various sites, and methods for venipuncture in the avian patient, and which methods are currently most appropriate. General reference to the benefits of or indication for performing avian venipuncture, as well as associated risks is included. Particular comparison is made between the use of the jugular vein, the ulnar vein and the medial metatarsal vein. Reference to the benefits and negatives of each site is made, as well as indication of the most practical method to achieve restraint and collection. Support staff in the veterinary clinic trying to improve avian case management will find this useful as an aid for best practice for venipuncture.

Management of Specific and Excessive Posturing Behavior in a Hyacinth Macaw (Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus) by Using Applied Behavior Analysis

Applied behavior analysis was used in a female hyacinth macaw (Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus) to reduce specific, excessive mating-type posturing that had become disruptive due to increased frequency, duration, and intensity. A functional assessment and intervention design worksheet was used to evaluate behavior-environment relations and to develop an individualized behavior-change plan. The functional assessment indicated that human attention was maintaining the behavior. The intervention, differential reinforcement of incompatible behavior, was implemented to increase attention for standing upright and to remove attention for posturing. Within 1 month, posturing decreased to acceptable levels and was replaced with an upright posture. Problem behaviors that appear "reproductive" may be responsive to behavior management alone. Applied behavior analysis and a functional assessment and intervention design are ideal tools to address problem behavior in avian patients.

Clinical Management of Seizures in Avian Patients

An avian patient with a history of seizure activity presents a therapeutic and diagnostic challenge to veterinary practitioners. Understanding the stages and types of seizures can aid in differentiating seizures from other types of neurologic abnormalities (e.g., syncope, narcolepsy, vestibular disease). Principal causes of seizure activity in birds include nutritional, traumatic, toxic exposure, cardiovascular, neoplastic, metabolic, and idiopathic. The key to developing an effective treatment plan is to determine the underlying etiology of the seizure activity. Treatment of status epilepticus and idiopathic epilepsy are discussed along with client education and communication, which both serve as cornerstones of successful avian seizure therapy.

Clinical Technique: Tube Feeding the Avian Patient

Veterinarians face many challenges when an avian patient is hospitalized for a prolonged period of time. Debilitated birds are often anorexic, which can quickly lead to severe weight loss and further deterioration of their clinical condition. For these patients, tube feeding becomes an essential part of a complete treatment plan. However, prolonged handling can amplify stress in these birds and a rapid delivery of nutrients is required as part of a treatment plan. To maximize the success of this treatment, a thorough knowledge of general avian restraint and the tube feeding process is necessary for the medical team responsible for treating the patient.

Management of the Geriatric Psittacine Patient

Aging avian patients are often presented to veterinary practices for routine physical examination or with geriatric-related diseases. The focus of this article is to review treatment modalities and therapeutic options for common disease presentations in the older psittacine patient, including heart disease, chronic hepatic disease, chronic kidney disease, neoplasia, and chronic pain. Factors involved with the decision of euthanasia are also included as a topic of discussion.

Anesthesia and Analgesia in Birds

Surgical intervention and painful conditions often apply to avian patients that are presented to veterinary hospitals. Therefore, anesthesia and analgesia are an important part of the daily routine associated with avian veterinary practice. These procedures differ from mammal medicine primarily because of different physiologic composition and different anatomical structures, which are described when relevant to anesthetic management. This article describes the most common anesthetic and analgesic procedures for birds and provides recommendations for veterinarians who treat these species. Moreover, there are detailed descriptions of preanesthetic and postanesthetic patient care and how to monitor anesthetized birds. Advantages and disadvantages of the different anesthetic techniques and analgesic protocols are also reviewed. If one treats birds in a veterinary hospital, it is important to have inhalation anesthesia equipment readily available so that it can be used when needed.