Aversive Handling Research Articles

Handling method affects measures of anxiety, but not chronic stress in mice

Studies in mice have shown that less aversive handling methods (e.g. tunnel or cup handling) can reduce behavioural measures of anxiety in comparison to picking mice up by their tail. Despite such evidence, tail handling continues to be used routinely. Besides resistance to change accustomed procedures, this may also be due to the fact that current evidence in support of less aversive handling is mostly restricted to effects of extensive daily handling, which may not apply to routine husbandry practices. The aim of our study was to assess whether, and to what extent, different handling methods during routine husbandry induce differences in behavioural and physiological measures of stress in laboratory mice. To put the effects of handling method in perspective with chronic stress, we compared handling methods to a validated paradigm of unpredictable chronic mild stress (UCMS). We housed mice of two strains (Balb/c and C57BL/6) and both sexes either under standard laboratory conditions (CTRL) or under UCMS. Half of the animals from each housing condition were tail handled and half were tunnel handled twice per week, once during a cage change and once for a routine health check. We found strain dependent effects of handling method on behavioural measures of anxiety: tunnel handled Balb/c mice interacted with the handler more than tail handled conspecifics, and tunnel handled CTRL mice showed increased open arm exploration in the elevated plus-maze. Mice undergoing UCMS showed increased plasma corticosterone levels and reduced sucrose preference. However, we found no effect of handling method on these stress-associated measures. Our results therefore indicate that routine tail handling can affect behavioural measures of anxiety, but may not be a significant source of chronic husbandry stress. Our results also highlight strain dependent responses to handling methods.

Effects of a training intervention for Swedish pig transport drivers on physical workload and time efficiency during loading

Slaughter transportation of pigs can be considered a high-risk occupation, but has received very little scientific attention. We investigated the effect of a training intervention on transport drivers’ physical workload, in terms of postures and movements, and time efficiency during loading of finishing pigs for slaughter transport. The training targeted pig handling and ergonomic working principles and was expected to decrease physical workload and loading time per pig, due to less aversive handling and less stress-related pig behaviour. Inclinometric recordings of elevation and velocity of upper arms were used to assess workload before and after training. Seventeen drivers were studied during loading of 4,721 pigs at 36 loadings on 31 Swedish farms under varying conditions. Eleven of the drivers were trained and 10 of these were observed also after training. Overall mean peak loads for right arm elevation, right arm velocity and loading time per pig were 56.4°, 184°/s and 16.2 s, respectively. We were unable to confirm our hypotheses regarding effects of training on physical workload and loading time.

Pre-Partum Supplementation with Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids on Colostrum Characteristics and Lamb Immunity and Behavior after a Mild Post-Weaning Aversive Handling Period.

Simple SummaryLivestock farming faces the necessity of reducing the use of medicines, particularly antimicrobials, without compromising animal welfare as one main challenge. A strategy to improve animal health, specifically in breeding stock, relies on improved nutrition of the mothers during late pregnancy and on management factors during early life. These could affect mother and offspring physiological functions (calostrogenesis, fetal development or maturation of lamb’s immune system) and potentially modulate their stress-response capabilities. We studied the effect of pre-partum omega-3 (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acids supplementation on ewe colostrum composition and immunological quality and whether changes resulted in any advantage on lambs’ passive immunization and on their physiological, behavioral, and inflammatory responses when subjected to a post-weaning stressor to confer stress resilience. Gestational supplementation with nutrients rich in essential fatty acids was effective to enhance colostrum quality related to biologically active molecules, such as conjugated linoleic acid, which plays a role in the regulation of the immune response. Stress resilience was studied by assessing lamb’s behavioral response after exposing lambs to a combination of stressors and by measuring plasma cortisol concentrations and immunological responses to specific circulating cytokines. This work highlights the complex relationship between late pregnancy nutrition in the mothers and immune system development in the offspring and explores the potential for programming nutrition interventions to develop more resilient livestock and to tackle the need for a reduction in the use of antibiotics.We studied the effect of pre-natal supplementation with n-3 α-linolenic acid (ALA) combined with a tannin-rich forage on colostrum composition and immunological quality and whether these changes had advantageous effects on lambs’ survival and stress reaction to a post-weaning stressor. Forty-eight Latxa ewes were fed during the last five weeks of pregnancy with two experimental diets: a control diet based on a neutral concentrate and forage (tall fescue hay; CO-FES), and a supplemented diet based on polyunsaturated (PUFA)-rich concentrate and tanniferous forage (sainfoin; ALA-SAIN). After parturition, twenty ewes had their blood and colostrum sampled, and their lambs were monitored until post-weaning. Lambs were afterwards subjected to (i) an aversive handling period (AHP) followed by a behavioral assessment and (ii) inflammatory and lymphocyte proliferation challenge. Feeding ALA-SAIN resulted in changes in colostrum fatty acid composition, specifically higher α-linoleic acid (p < 0.001), conjugate linoleic acid (p = 0.005), vaccenic acid (p = 0.006) and long-chain n-3 PUFA (p = 0.004). Pre-partum nutrition did not affect lamb immunoglobulin (Ig) G apparent efficacy absorption, but circulating IgG tended to be higher (p = 0.054) in ALA-SAIN lambs. ALA-SAIN lambs interacted more frequently with other lambs (p = 0.002), whereas ALA-SAIN females spent more time closer to other lambs (p < 0.001). Plasma cortisol was higher (p = 0.047) and plasma interleukin (IL)-2 lower (p = 0.003) in CO-FES lambs. This research highlights the importance of prenatal nutrition on the immune system stimulation and lambs’ behavior as a strategy to improve lambs’ health and welfare during early life.

Contribution of Precision Livestock Farming Systems to the Improvement of Welfare Status and Productivity of Dairy Animals

Although the effects of human–dairy cattle interaction have been extensively examined, data concerning small ruminants are scarce. The present review article aims at highlighting the effects of management practices on the productivity, physiology and behaviour of dairy animals. In general, aversive handling is associated with a milk yield reduction and welfare impairment. Precision livestock farming systems have therefore been applied and have rapidly changed the management process with the introduction of technological and computer innovations that contribute to the minimization of animal disturbances, the promotion of good practices and the maintenance of cattle’s welfare status and milk production and farms’ sustainability and competitiveness at high levels. However, although dairy farmers acknowledge the advantages deriving from the application of precision livestock farming advancements, a reluctance concerning their regular application to small ruminants is observed, due to economic and cultural constraints and poor technological infrastructures. As a result, targeted intervention training programmes are also necessary in order to improve the efficacy and efficiency of handling, especially of small ruminants.

Is the ram that is more receptive to brushing, less reactive to electroejaculation?

The aim of this study was to determine if there is a relationship between how rams respond to brushing and electroejaculation. The response to brushing and electroejaculation was recorded in twelve rams previously habituated to both handlings. The time during which the ears were in the back position, the number of changes in ear position, and the time spent eating during brushing were positively related to the duration of electroejaculation (S = 75, P = 0.03; S = 81, P = 0.04, and S = 118, P = 0.05, respectively). The time during which the ears were in the back position and the time drinking during brushing were positively related to the change in rectal temperature during electroejaculation (S = 58, P = 0.01 and S = 98, P = 0.02, respectively). The number of times that the ram sniffed the brusher was negatively related to the change in rectal temperature during electroejaculation (S = 454, P = 0.04). The time spent eating while brushed was negatively related to the change in heart rate during electroejaculation (S = 460, P = 0.04). Finally, the time spent drinking water during brushing tended to be positively related to the number of vocalizations during electroejaculation (S = 134, P = 0.08). Overall, it was concluded that there is not a clear relationship between the individual response of rams to a pleasurable stimulus as brushing and an aversive handling as electroejaculation. This reinforces that the individual characteristics should be deeply understood to develop effective strategies to improve animal welfare in farm practices.

Cattle and Pigs Are Easy to Move and Handle Will Have Less Preslaughter Stress.

Previous research has clearly shown that short-term stresses during the last few minutes before stunning can result in Pale Soft Exudative (PSE) pork in pigs or increased toughness in beef. Electric prods and other aversive handling methods during the last five minutes are associated with poorer meat quality. Handlers are more likely to use aversive methods if livestock constantly stop and are difficult to move into the stun box. Factors both inside and outside the slaughter plant contribute to handling problems. Some in-plant factors are lighting, shadows, seeing motion up ahead, or air movement. Non-slip flooring is also very important for low-stress handling. During the last ten years, there have been increasing problems with on-farm factors that may make animals more difficult to move at the abattoir. Cattle or pigs that are lame or stiff will be more difficult to move and handle. Some of the factors associated with lame cattle are either poor design or lack of adequate bedding in dairy cubicles (free stalls) and housing beef cattle for long periods on concrete floors. Poor leg conformation in both cattle and pigs may also be associated with animals that are reluctant to move. Indiscriminate breeding selection for meat production traits may be related to some of the leg conformation problems. Other on-farm factors that may contribute to handling problems at the abattoir are high doses of beta-agonists or cattle and pigs that have had little contact with people.

The Visual, Auditory, and Physical Environment of Livestock Handling Facilities and Its Effect on Ease of Movement of Cattle, Pigs, and Sheep

The visual, auditory, and physical environment livestock are handled in will have an effect on the ease of movement through races and corrals that are used for veterinary treatment, loading trucks or at slaughter houses. When livestock refuse to move easily through a handling facility, people are more likely to use electric goads (prods) or other aversive methods to move them forward. This is a major animal welfare concern. Modification of the environment can improve livestock movement and reduce aversive handling methods. In existing facilities used for handling cattle, pigs or sheep, simple changes such as, adding a light to a dark race entrance or reducing loud intermittent noise may improve livestock movement. Eliminating distractions such as, a noisy truck near a lairage can also facilitate cattle movement and reduce stopping or turning back. In an outdoor facility, sharp shadows on the floor were more likely to be associated with cattle stopping compared to no shadows or soft faint shadows. The installation of small solid walls to prevent approaching animals from seeing either moving equipment, vehicles or people in front of them may also improve forward livestock movement. Non-slip flooring is essential to prevent slipping and falling during handling. Rebuilding or completely redesigning an existing facility is often not required. Outcome based indicators should be used to assess continuous improvements in handling. Some of the commonly used measurable of handling are slipping and falling, stopping, turning back, vocalization during handling and electric prod use. Collecting data both before and after an environmental modification can be used to determine its effectiveness.

Your happiness or mine: Influence of affective states and level of contact on public perceptions of elephant tourism

AbstractMany captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in Thailand participate in the tourism industry at attractions known as ‘elephant camps.’ There has been significant criticism of low welfare venues, where the elephants may experience injuries, poor nutrition, unnatural social environments and aversive handling. Despite increasing concern for animal welfare, the general public often have difficulty identifying the welfare issues affecting captive animals. The aim of this study was to investigate participants’ willingness to support an elephant attraction and their perceived emotional value from the experience, based on the affective state of the captive elephant and their level of contact with it. Participants (n = 590) from the United States were randomly assigned to one of four vignettes (using a 2 × 2 experimental design) that described an elephant attraction, varying the affective state of the elephant (feels excellent, feels terrible) and the level of contact they could have with the elephant (low, high). A mixed methods approach was used, where participants provided answers to Likert-type questions, followed by an open-ended response. Participants showed greater willingness to support the elephant attraction and greater perceived emotional value from the experience when the elephant felt excellent, as opposed to when the elephant felt terrible. There were no significant differences between low and high contact for the measures included in this study. Qualitative responses varied greatly, with participants making many assumptions about the elephant and the attraction, revealing potential misconceptions that they had regarding the welfare of captive elephants. This research may be used to encourage a shift in tourism preferences to venues that reflect positive elephant welfare.

An observational field study on the effects of changes in shadow contrasts and noise on cattle movement in a small abattoir

This observational field study examined the effect of changes in shadow contrasts on the floor and noise on balking behavior during handling. Seventy-four Bos taurus beef cattle were observed during handling at a small abattoir. Shadow contrast type (none, soft, sharp) was recorded during three stages of handling (unloading, lairage to single-file alley and into stun box). Cattle balking behavior (stop, put head down, back up) and aversive handling (electric prod, tail twist) were recorded for each shadow contrast type and the presence or absence of a noisy rendering truck. Sharp contrast shadows increased balking behavior compared to soft contrast shadows or none during unloading (X2 = 12.4, P < 0.001). The noisy truck increased balking behavior during handling from the lairage holding pens to the single-file alley (P < 0.001) and during movement into the stun box (P = 0.001). Sharp contrast shadows on the floor from lighting changes and noise from the truck increased balking behavior in cattle.

Handling and milking frequency affect milk yield and behavior in dairy ewes

The effects of human handling (friendly versus aversive) and milking frequency (once versus twice daily) on productive and behavioral parameters of two Greek dairy sheep breeds (Karagouniko and Chios) were examined. The experiment started a week after lamb weaning (50 ± 5 days after lamb birth) and lasted for ten weeks. Milk yield, milk flow rate and number of kick responses during milking were weekly recorded. Each milking was alternatively performed by a friendly or an aversive milker. At the end of 4th and 9th week, an isolation - flight distance test was also applied. As shown, Karagouniko ewes had lower daily milk yield but higher milk flow rate than Chios ewes. Higher milk yield was also observed in ewes milked twice compared to those milked once per day. Aversive handling increased the number of kick responses during milking and decreased milk yield. At the same time, ewes exhibited a preference for a specific position in the milking parlor. During the isolation - flight distance test, Karagouniko ewes bleated less, but had longer flight distances compared to Chios ones. Multiparous had a shorter flight distance than the primiparous ewes. Finally, ewes milked once per day displayed more jumps and less bleats compared to those milked twice. It is suggested that specific training programs targeted at the handling improvement with the intention to reduce fear responses could improve productivity in dairy ewes.

Pre-slaughter factors linked to variation in responses to carbon dioxide gas stunning in pig abattoirs

The stunning process is an important component of slaughter with implications for animal welfare due to the potential distress and pain in the case of a sub-effective or lengthy stun. This study examined the factors correlated with variation in responses to carbon dioxide (CO2) stunning of pigs in five Australian commercial abattoirs. A total of 1 769 pigs (199–492 focal pigs per abattoir) were individually followed from lairage to post-stunning. A standardised observation protocol was used based on a literature review of the pre-slaughter factors that may influence the reaction to CO2 stunning, such as animal background, lairage conditions, handling, stunning system and conditions. Pigs lost posture 22.5 ± 0.2 s after commencement of descent of the gondola into the CO2 chamber. Latency to loss of posture was associated with farm of origin and time of day, which could be linked to various factors. Pigs that crawled or attempted to escape while in the gondola within the CO2 chamber took longer to lose posture. Crawl and escape attempts differed between abattoirs (0.6–46.2% of the pigs observed) as well as mounting other pigs (1.0–24.3%). Greater amounts of forceful contacts during handling in the race were related to more mounting in the gondola, but to less pigs crawling or attempting to escape. Mounting in the gondola was more frequent for pigs from lairage pens of mixed sexes, followed by pens of entire males and finally pens of females. Males were also twice as likely to show crawl and escape attempts than females. Gasping in the gondola was relatively frequent (63.1–81.8%) and was associated with higher activity in the lairage pen and higher skin injuries. Convulsions (60.1–69.6%) were generally observed after loss of posture. The type of CO2 system (group-wise vs single-file loading) had no significant effect on behaviour in the gondola. Nevertheless, pigs slaughtered in abattoirs with group-wise loading systems and automatic gates had lower cortisol concentrations post-stunning, which may be linked to minimal handling by stockpeople, other factors related to the systems, or differences in timing of when blood samples were taken. In conclusion, substantial variation in the reaction of pigs to CO2 stunning was observed between and within abattoirs using a uniform protocol for data collection. This variation in outcomes between abattoirs and stunning systems and the relationships between handling and behavioural outcomes indicates that improvements can be made to reduce aversive responses to CO2 stunning. In particular, avoiding mixing pigs of different sexes in lairage and aversive handling in the race may reduce aversive response to CO2 stunning.

Animal Welfare in Extensive Production Systems Is Still an Area of Concern

Traditionally, research on farm animal welfare has mainly been focused on welfare problems thought to be common in intensive systems, whereas the welfare of animals kept in extensive systems has attracted much less attention. This may be due to the generally held belief that extensive systems are advantageous in terms of animal welfare. Although it is undeniable that extensive systems have many benefits in terms of animal welfare, they are by no means free of welfare problems. This review highlights the animal welfare problems that are most likely to be found in extensive systems following the four animal welfare domains of “nutrition”, “environment”, “health” and “behavior”. Extensive environments are highly variable and heterogeneous in terms of climate conditions, food quality and access to high-quality water, and this can raise serious welfare concerns related to chronic hunger and thirst, and thermal stress. These problems will vary depending on the location and time of year. Some diseases are more likely in extensive systems than in intensive ones and this can be compounded by supervision of animals being more difficult in extensive systems. Several painful husbandry procedures as well as neonatal mortality and predation are other potential welfare issues for animals raised in extensive systems. Finally, infrequent handling and / or potentially aversive handling can impair human-animal relationship and have a negative effect on the welfare of extensive livestock. Detection and monitoring of welfare problems in extensive systems are essential for implementing practical solutions adapted to local challenges. Selecting animals that are adapted to local conditions reduces some of the welfare problems encountered in extensive systems. Practice-led innovations should be undertaken in extensive systems and should support knowledge-exchange strategies with producers.

What stockperson behavior during weighing reveals about the relationship between humans and suckling beef cattle: A preliminary study

The human-animal relationship is a key component of human and farm-animal welfare. Farm surveys, particularly for pig, dairy cattle and veal calf production, which include regular human contact, showed that animals may face aversive handling during daily work routines, which can significantly increase their fear of humans. Similar surveys of stockperson behavior towards suckling beef cattle, which are handled less often, are rare. The aim of this preliminary study was therefore to develop a tool for assessing stockperson behavior during the occasional but common weighing procedure on commercial beef farms and then to test its potential to indicate the general human-animal relationship on such farms. Two hundred and thirty interaction sequences of stockpeople handling calves on six farms were filmed during weight monitoring. During them, stockpeople’s vocal and tactile interactions and locomotion were recorded in detail. Additionally, an avoidance test with an unfamiliar human was performed with the farm’s heifers on pasture. Multiple correspondence analysis followed by ascendant hierarchical clustering (AHC) was performed on the sequences to identify groups of practices that stockpeople used during handling. Next, the relationship between the AHC groups according to the time spent weighing and the number of calf vocalizations was analyzed using one-way analyses of variance followed by pairwise comparisons (with Bonferroni correction). Three AHC groups of handling styles that including positive and negative features were identified: (1) mostly “negative” practices (67 sequences) such as hitting calves, twisting their tails or not talking to them; (2) “neutral” practices (62 sequences) such as talking to calves, moving quickly and pushing the calves and (3) mostly “positive” practices (83 sequences) such as touching the calves, not hitting or pushing them and not twisting their tails. The group using “positive” practices spent significantly less time weighing a calf than the two other groups (p < 0.01). In addition, the calves vocalized less with the group using “positive” practices than with that using “neutral” practices. Like for animal production systems that include daily routine handling, our study suggests relationships between stockperson practices during one-time handling events and animal reactions to humans on commercial beef farms. Observing stockpeople during less common handling events could identify poor human-animal relationships in suckling beef cattle production.

Ninety one-days-old piglets recognize and remember a previous aversive handler

The aim of this study was to determine if 91 days-old piglets can remember a previous aversive handler after three weeks with no contact with this person. For this, 16 piglets from a group of 48 piglets were submitted to an aversive treatment from birth until 70 days of life, made by a woman wearing orange coveralls (AH). AH was noisy, moved harshly and shouted frequently. After day 70, piglets did not have any further contact with AH. At the same time, a new neutral treatment was introduced made by another person (NH – a woman wearing blue coveralls). NH used a soft tone of voice and was careful. The Human Approach Test was applied to measure the avoidance response of piglets to the approach of AH, NH and an unfamiliar handler (UH), at 35 days and at 91 days after birth. Scores ranged from 1 (experimenter could touch piglets) to 4 (piglets escaped as soon as the experimenter moves). On day 35, piglets kept more distance from AH then from the UH (2.37±0.33 and 1.69±0.22 respectively, P=0.04), indicating that they could recognize the aversive handler. On 91 days, piglets still kept more distance from AH then UH and NH (2.75±0.33; 1.31±0.15; 1.25±0.11 respectively, P<0.001), indicating that aversively treated piglets do not avoid an unfamiliar handler, but can remember an aversive handler with whom they had contact early in life. In conclusion, piglets tested at 35 and 91 days of age show different avoidance responses to different humans, according to the quality of their previous interactions. Moreover, they remember a previous aversive handler after at least three weeks with no contact.

Gentle vs. aversive handling of pregnant ewes: I. Maternal cortisol and behavior

The aim of the experiment was to study the effects of aversive vs. gentle handling in late pregnancy on maternal behavior of ewes. Sixteen Norwegian Dala ewes bearing twins were subjected to 10min of either gentle (GEN — soft talking and calm behavior) or aversive (AVS — swift movements and shouting) handling twice a day during the last 5weeks of pregnancy. Salivary cortisol was recorded before and after treatments. The following behaviors were recorded post-partum in the ewes: grooming duration, number of vocalizations and in the lambs: number of vocalizations, latency and duration of standing, latency and duration in udder-directed position. The ability of the ewe to follow her lamb carried away by a human was scored on day 1 and 7. After the treatment sessions, cortisol levels tended to increase in AVS ewes but not GEN ewes. At parturition, AVS ewes groomed their offspring for a longer duration than GEN ewes. AVS lambs tended to be heavier than GEN lambs at 24h of age. Follow Scores from GEN ewes were higher than for the AVS ewes at day one, but no difference between treatment groups was detected after one week. These results show that aversively treated ewes increased their grooming behavior towards their offspring, but that fear of humans disrupted their ability to follow their lambs closely when carried away by a human. We conclude that the type of handling of ewes during pregnancy may have some impact on important maternal behaviors.

Gentle vs. aversive handling of pregnant ewes: II. Physiology and behavior of the lambs

We compared the effects of aversive and gentle handling in late pregnant ewes on fearfulness, heart rate variability and spatial learning in lambs. Twenty-four Norwegian-Dala ewes were studied. Ewes were subjected to gentle (i.e. soft talking and calm behavior) or aversive handling (i.e. swift movements and shouting) for 10min twice a day during the last five weeks of pregnancy. Lambs from aversively (AVS) or gently (GEN) treated ewes were tested at 4weeks of age. Lamb behavior was recorded during a) a human approach test, composed of 4min of isolation and 4min of exposure to an unfamiliar human, b) an umbrella startle test followed by 5-min recording, and c) two repetitions of a maze test. In addition, heart rate variability was recorded telemetrically before and after the human and startle tests. The baseline heart rate variability measures suggested a lower influence of vagal stimulation in AVS lambs. In the human approach test, AVS lambs vocalized and explored the environment less, and were slower to approach the human. They also tended to have higher flight distances during the startle test than the GEN lambs. The prenatal treatment had no significant effect in the maze test. In conclusion, we showed that aversive handling of pregnant ewes increased fearfulness and reduced vagal tone in their progeny compared to GEN lambs. These effects can have consequences for how lambs cope with rearing conditions.

The effects of prior handling experiences on the stress responses of semi-feral foals at auction

Welfare is often defined as the state of an individual to cope with the environment in which it finds itself (Fraser and Broom, 1997). This statement is further endorsed by the assertion that stress is triggered by environmental stimuli that cause a defence reaction or ‘stress response’ (Mostl and Palme, 2002). Stress can be measured by alterations in behaviour and through changes in physiological parameters. In a recent report, the Farm Animal Welfare Committee (2005) postulated that elevated levels of stress in semi feral ponies at auction maybe apparent in those ponies herded through auction sale rings by handlers displaying limited competence and knowledge of equine husbandry. Aversive handling and the consequent fear that animals feel towards humans can be a major source of stress and should be considered a welfare concern (Rushen et al., 1999). Research into aversive handling has a propensity to be more focused on intensively farmed production animals. However, it is apparent that the fast movement of pony stock through sale rings, and the often aggressive manner in which this can be carried out, may not be considered optimal for the welfare of these ponies. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of prior handling experience on the stress response of semi feral foals at auction.

Feeding small quantities of grain in the parlour facilitates pre-milking handling of dairy cows: a note

Food rewards are increasingly recognised as a method of training animals to submit to management procedures that might otherwise require aversive handling. The aim of the current study was to determine if feeding small amounts of concentrate in the parlour could improve entrance behaviour. Cows within one milking group received 0, 0.3 or 0.6 kg ( n=17 in each treatment) of concentrate per milking in the parlour using a computer controlled feeding system. Cows were observed before and after the treatment began, recording order of entry, latency (s) to fully enter the parlour, if the cow needed to be pushed into the parlour and if the cow defecated or urinated while in the milking parlour. Cows receiving feed moved up in the milking order by (mean±S.E.) 7.6±2.3 positions once the treatment period began. The latency for these cows to entered the parlour reduced by 1.7 s±0.5 s during the treatment, and these cows were 59%±6% less likely to require being pushed. This latter effect carried over to the control cows that were not fed in the parlour: these cows were 37%±7% less likely to be pushed during the treatment period. There was no effect of feeding on the proportion of animals that defecated or urinated while in the milking parlour. Although feeding had a positive effect on entry into the parlour, the amount of food provided had no effect. Thus, the results of this study indicate that even small quantities of concentrate can act to motivate parlour entry, reducing the need for pushing and other interventions that may have negative effects on the cows.

Dairy cows’ fear of people: social learning, milk yield and behaviour at milking

We examined the effects of the presence of an unfamiliar, a gentle or an aversive handler during milking on behaviour and milk yield, and whether cows can learn to approach or avoid a handler by observing the neighbouring cow’s responses. In Experiment 1, Danish Friesian cows ( n=16) were treated gently (offering hay and concentrates) by one handler and aversively (hit every 15 s on the head with the hand) by another handler for six periods of 2 min each. The two handlers wore different coloured overalls, and each cow received either gentle or aversive treatment in the first week and the other treatment the following week. All cows kept a longer distance to the aversive than to the gentle handler in a 1 min test after treatment. Milk yield and residual milk did not differ when the aversive or the gentle handler was standing in front of the cow during milking, although the cows moved their legs and tail less when the aversive handler was present. When an unfamiliar person was standing in front of the cows during milking, behaviour and milk yield did not differ from control milkings. Cows and heifers ( n=10) that had observed their neighbours receiving gentle treatment by one handler and aversive treatment from another handler did not differ in the distance they kept from these two handlers. In Experiment 2, cows ( n=15) that had observed the neighbours receiving a gentle treatment (eight times for 2 min) kept a shorter distance to that handler after treatment of their neighbours, and the distance they kept was correlated with the distance kept by the neighbouring cows. This suggests that responses of observer cows may be affected by the responses of the cows being treated. The cows rapidly learned to avoid an aversive handler, but although the cows showed clear avoidance response to the aversive handler there was no effect on milk yield when the aversive handler was present at milking.

Domestic animals' fear of humans and its effect on their welfare

Many studies on pigs, poultry, and dairy cattle have shown that rough or aversive handling of farm animals by people can substantially reduce the animals' productivity and welfare. Some of this effect occurs because the animals become afraid, either of people in general, or of specific individuals as a result of aversive handling. In this paper, we review a number of studies showing that farm animals handled roughly or aversively learn to associate the handling with people, and that this learned fear of people can have marked effects on production. The ability to recognize individual people has now been shown indisputably for many species of farm animals, although under some circumstances, animals do not behave differently to different people. Animals' learned fear of individual people can markedly affect their productivity. For example, in dairy cattle, the presence of an aversive handler during milking can reduce milk yield and substantially increase residual milk. Pigs appear to use multiple cues to distinguish people, although visual cues are clearly important. Cows can readily learn to distinguish between people wearing different colour clothes, but it is more difficult for them to distinguish between people wearing the same colour. Furthermore, cows' responses to people change markedly when clothing colour is changed, although this does not seem to be true for poultry. However, animals' responses to people can be affected by the context. For example, cattle's learned responses to individuals can be strongly affected by the place they are in. We finish with some suggestions as to how these results can be used to reduce fear in farm animals.