Average Weaning Age Research Articles

Genetic improvement of indigenous cattle breeds in Ethiopia: A systematic review of the Fogera cattle open nucleus breeding scheme

Fogera cattle are one of the valuable indigenous milk-type local breeds of Ethiopia, widely adapted to the area around Lake Tana in the Amhara region. The objective of this systematic review was to evaluate the performance of the Fogera cattle breed under an open nucleus breeding scheme. The review was done systematically by collecting published and unpublished data sources on the breed. The overall milk yield of the nucleus Fogera cattle herd was 2.26±0.794L/day. From the total herd, the top 10% and 25% of them produced daily milk yields of 3.31 and 2.87L, respectively, and some elite cows gave an average of 5.45±0.73L/day with a maximum yield of 8L/day. The predicted 305-day milk yield for the top 10% and 25% of the total herd was 883.64 and 772.83L, respectively. The average lactation milk yield and lactation length were reported to be 489±184L and 243±72.79 days, respectively. The respective heritability estimates for the aforementioned traits were 0.20±0.23 and 0.27±0.001. The birth and weaning weights (at 8 months of age) of village Fogera cattle born from community-based breeding programmes (CBBP) were 23.77±.21 and 85.89±1.07kg, respectively. The average weaning age for the CBBP herds was reduced to 8 months. The overall calf mortality in the nucleus herd was 3%. The CBBP demonstrated that it could act as a significant entry point for ensuring the conservation and restocking efforts of this breed as a country asset.

Utilizing productivity and health breeding-to-market information along with disease diagnostic data to identify pig mortality risk factors in a U.S. swine production system.

Aggregated diagnostic data collected over time from swine production systems is an important data source to investigate swine productivity and health, especially when combined with records concerning the pre-weaning and post-weaning phases of production. The combination of multiple data streams collected over the lifetime of the pigs is the essence of the whole-herd epidemiological investigation. This approach is particularly valuable for investigating the multifaceted and ever-changing factors contributing to wean-to-finish (W2F) swine mortality. The objective of this study was to use a retrospective dataset ("master table") containing information on 1,742 groups of pigs marketed over time to identify the major risk factors associated with W2F mortality. The master table was built by combining historical breed-to-market performance and health data with disease diagnostic records (Dx Codes) from marketed groups of growing pigs. After building the master table, univariate analyses were conducted to screen for risk factors to be included in the initial multivariable model. After a stepwise backward model selection approach, 5 variables and 2 interactions remained in the final model. Notably, the diagnosis variable significantly associated with W2F mortality was porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV). Closeouts with clinical signs suggestive of Salmonella spp. or Escherichia coli infection were also associated with higher W2F mortality. Source sow farm factors that remained significantly associated with W2F mortality were the sow farm PRRS status, average weaning age, and the average pre-weaning mortality. After testing for the possible interactions in the final model, two interactions were significantly associated with wean-to-finish pig mortality: (1) sow farm PRRS status and a laboratory diagnosis of PRRSV and (2) average weaning age and a laboratory diagnosis of PRRS. Closeouts originating from PRRS epidemic or PRRS negative sow farms, when diagnosed with PRRS in the growing phase, had the highest W2F mortality rates. Likewise, PRRS diagnosis in the growing phase was an important factor in mortality, regardless of the average weaning age of the closeouts. Overall, this study demonstrated the utility of a whole-herd approach when analyzing diagnostic information along with breeding-to-market productivity and health information, to measure the major risk factors associated with W2F mortality in specified time frames and pig populations.

Sex-biased parental investment and female wealth accumulation in ancient California.

The mortuary record at Middle Period site Kalawwasa Rummeytak (CA-SCL-134) (2600-1225 cal BP) in California's southern Santa Clara Valley shows pronounced wealth inequality; Olivella shell bead wealth, as well as other grave goods, are concentrated in the burials of several older adult females. The concentration of wealth among women, along with regional strontium isotopic evidence of male-biased residential shifts in early adulthood, suggests a matrilineal kinship system that practiced matrilocal post-marital residence patterns. We suggest local resource enhancement effects incentivized keeping women in their natal communities and investing more in female offspring. With the consent of, and in collaboration with, the Muwekma Ohlone Tribe of the San Francisco Bay Area, this paper employs isotopic analysis (δ15 N and δ13 C, 86 Sr/87 Sr) to examine duration of exclusive breastfeeding, weaning age (complete cessation of breastmilk consumption), early childhood diet, and lifetime residential mobility of individuals interred at Kalawwasa Rummeytak to test the assumption that the site inhabitants favored matrilocality and that female offspring received greater levels of investment in groups with female wealth/status attainment. First molars, third molars, and bone was sampled from 22 individuals. The average weaning age for females at Kalawwasa Rummeytak is 36.3 months ± 9.7 (1 SD), or just over 3 years. The average weaning age for males is 31.2 ± 7.9 months (1 SD), or about 2.6 years. Infants at the site were provisioned with supplemental foods dominated by C3 plants and terrestrial herbivores, as well as anadromous fish. After weaning, individuals consumed a diet dominated by acorns, C3 plants, and terrestrial herbivores, with periodic inclusion of anadromous fish. 30% of the sampled population of females exhibit local first molar 87 Sr/86 Sr values, suggesting that Kalawwasa Rummeytak is their natal community. None of the males interred at the site are locals. Despite the small sample size often unavoidable in archaeological contexts, we find possible female-biased parental investment strategies. Cessation of breastfeeding (weaning) was, on average, 5 months earlier for males compared to females. There are no differences between females and males in the consumption of supplemental or post-weaning foods. Strontium data suggest a flexible postmarital residence system that favored matrilocality. This may have incentivized greater investment in female offspring.

Characteristics of breeders and maintenance management in improving the productivity of Balinese pigs as Bali germplasm in Gerokgak District, Buleleng Regency

The purpose of this study was to describe the characteristics, behavior of breeders and rearing management as well as analyze and find the relationship between characteristics and behavior with the level of application Bali pig farm maintenance management. This research was conducted in Gerokgak District, Buleleng Regency in June-August 2022. Purposive sampling (with certain considerations). Sampling as respondents were 100 Balinese pig breeders with the criteria of maintaining one to two broods and at least having kept them for one year. Sampling using the "Snowball Sampling" method. The analysis used is quantitative descriptive analysis and Spearman rank level correlation test. The level of implementation of Balinese pig rearing management is in the good category. Descriptive research results Management, production management with an average weaning age of 67.65 ±5.4 days, reproductive management in good category. The results of the correlation test for the Spearman rank level.

254 Impact of Preweaning Factors on Nursery Throughput

Abstract The objective was to evaluate factors associated with nursery throughput. Data consisted of 3,260 piglets from 320 litters at the NCDA Tidewater Research Station. At weaning, piglets were housed nine per pen (0.23m2 per pig) in onsite nursery facilities for 35 d. Using linear models, farrowing batch (BATCH), gender, litter size (LS), average piglet birth weight (BWT), birth weight CV (BWT_CV), piglet weaning weight (WWT), weaning weight CV (WWT_CV) and weaning age (WEANAGE) were associated with nursery average daily gain (NurADG), nursery exit weight (NurEXITWT), nursery survival (SURVIVAL) and full-value nursery pigs (FULLVALUE, pigs >13.6kg at nursery exit). Litter was the experimental unit. Average WEANAGE, WWT, SURVIVAL and FULLVALUE were 28.1 (±4.7 d), 7.8kg, 98.7% and 94.3%, respectively. Correlations between NurADG with gender, LS, BWT, BWT_CV, WWT, WWT_CV and WEANAGE were zero, -0.04, 0.24, 0.09, 0.81, 0.10 and 0.73, respectively. Factors related (P < .01) to NurADG included BATCH, BWT, WWT and WEANAGE (R2 = 0.80). Within these factors, WWT and WEANAGE explained 70% of the variation in NurADG. A 1kg increase in BWT and WWT increased (P < 0.01) NurADG by 60.3 and 19.4g per pig per d, respectively. A 1 d older WEANAGE increased (P < 0.01) NurADG by 9.36g per pig per d. Increased NurEXITWT was associated (P < 0.05) with BATCH and greater BWT, WWT and WEANAGE (R2=0.88). Within these, WWT and WEANAGE explained 83% of the variation in NurEXITWT. A 1kg increase in BWT and WWT increased (P < 0.01) NurEXITWT by 2.09 and 1.68kg per pig, respectively. A 1 d older WEANAGE increased (P < 0.01) NurEXITWT by 323g per pig. Increased BWT was associated (P < 0.01) with greater SURVIVAL, explaining 4% of the variation. Improved FULLVALUE was associated with (P < 0.05) BATCH and generally greater BWT, WWT and WEANAGE (R2 = 0.44). Of the factors studied, WWT had the greatest impact on the percentage of FULLVALUE at nursery exit (R2 = 0.36).

A longitudinal study of pre- and post-weaning tail damage in non-docked pigs

Tail-biting occurs pre-weaning, but literature on tail damage during lactation and on the development of damage over time is sparse, especially for non-docked piglets. We assessed the prevalence of tail damage in non-docked piglets in a commercial Danish piggery during the lactation and weaning period, and investigated the within-animal association of tail lesions pre- and post-weaning. Non-docked piglets (n = 741) from 51 loose-housed sows were individually marked and tracked from birth to 9 weeks (w9) of age. Tail damage was scored during lactation at w1 and w4, and once a week post-weaning (average weaning age 30 days) at w6 to w9. The within-animal association of tail damage before and after weaning was investigated at pig level using generalized mixed models. Tail damage was prevalent already pre-weaning. During the lactation period, the prevalence of tail lesions was 5% at w1 and 42% at w4, with the most prevalent score being ‘superficial damages’ (66.7%, score 1; pre-weaning scheme: 0 = no damage, 3 = tail wound). Post-weaning, 45% of pigs had a tail lesion at least once over the four assessments, with 16.7% of pigs having a tail lesion at least at two assessments. The majority of lesions were ‘minor scratches’ (34.2%, score 1; post-weaning scheme: 0 = no damage, 4 = wound – necrotic tail end) and a ‘scabbed wound’ (19.9%, score 3). The number of pigs with lesions as well as wound severity increased over time. More pigs had a tail wound at w8 (15%, P < 0.001 and < 0.01) and w9 (19%, P < 0.001 and < 0.001) compared to w6 (2.7%) and w7 (5.6%). Pigs with tail lesions pre-weaning (w1: OR 3.0, 95% CI 0.9 to 10.2; w4: OR 3.4, 95% CI 2.0 to 5.8) had a significantly higher risk of having a wound post-weaning, and pigs with lesions at w4 additionally were at a higher risk (OR 3.0, 95% CI 1.8 to 5.1) of having a lesion over several assessments. Females compared to castrated males had a significantly lower risk of having tail lesions at w1 (OR 0.3, 95% CI 0.1 to 0.8). Similarly, females were at a significantly lower risk (OR 0.5, 95% CI 0.4 to 0.9) of having a wound post-weaning, and tended to have a lower risk of having lesions over several assessments (OR 0.7, 95% CI 0.5 to 1.2). Our study confirmed that tail damage is prevalent already during the lactation period, and that pre-weaning tail damage is predictive of tail wounds post-weaning.

Effects of Physical Forms of Total Mixed Rations on Intake, Weaning Age, Growth Performance, and Blood Metabolites of Crossbred Dairy Calves.

Simple SummaryWeaning the calf earlier has been found to reduce the milk feeding and labor cost through higher solid feed intake and early rumen development. Forages, when included in calf starter diet, have been found to be beneficial in this regard. This experiment was planned to evaluate the effects of adding 15% oat hay to calf starter and feeding the same as pelleted or un-pelleted total mix ration. Three groups of calves were given four liters of milk daily during the first week and then six liters daily with free access to water and the respective starter diet. The quantity of milk was gradually reduced until the calf started consuming 800 grams of starter for three days. Feed intake, health scores, and shed temperature/humidity were recorded daily. Body weight, body measurements, and blood sample collections were carried out weekly. Feed intake and body measurement gains were similar in all groups. Blood metabolite concentrations and rumen development parameters were also not affected. Average daily weight gain and feed efficiency were numerically higher for calves given pelleted total mix ration followed by unpelleted total mix ration and only concentrate starter feed. On average, calves fed pelleted total mix ration were weaned 5.4 days earlier than those fed only concentrate. No negative effect was observed on any health or growth parameter with addition of oat hay. Expenditure per kg of weight gain was numerically lowest in the pellet fed group, followed by hay mix starter and only starter fed calves. Oat hay may be safely included in calf starter ration as pelleted mixture with economic benefits.This study evaluated the effects of hay-based total mix ration (TMR) in pelleted or unpelleted form on intake, weaning age, performance parameters, blood metabolites, and cost-effectiveness in crossbred dairy calves during the preweaning period under hot climatic conditions. Thirty calves (4 ± 1 days (d) old), were assigned to one of the three dietary treatments in a randomized complete block design. Treatments assigned were: (1) conventional calf starter (CCS); without hay (2) TMR containing 85% calf starter and 15% chopped oat hay (OH) and (3) pelleted TMR (PTMR) containing 85% calf starter and 15% OH. Colostrum-fed calves were offered four liters (L) of whole milk each, during the first week, followed by six L daily. Calves were weaned off milk gradually on the basis of targeted starter intake of 200, 600, and 800 grams, after which they were considered weaned. Environmental temperature, feed intake, and health scores were recorded daily. The calves experienced heat stress with an average temperature-humidity index (THI) of 80.06 ± 3.42. Results revealed that average daily dry matter intake (DMI), average daily gain (ADG), and feed efficiency (FE) were not different (P > 0.05) among the treatments. Changes in body measurements, rumen development parameters, and blood metabolites were also not affected by the treatments (P > 0.05). Average weaning age in PTMR was 5.4 d earlier as compared to CCS. Feed cost per unit gain tended to be lower for PTMR compared with CCS-fed (86%) calves. Feeding pelleted TMR containing 15% OH tended to reduce the weaning age and feed cost per unit gain without affecting growth performance, intake, FE, and health parameters in crossbred calves under heat stress conditions.

Effects of Streptococcus dysgalactiae polyarthritis on lamb growth and mortality and risk factors for disease

This study describes an outbreak of infectious polyarthritis due to Streptococcus dysgalactiae in a New Zealand sheep flock, evaluates the effects on lamb growth rates and mortality and investigates risk factors for disease development. Data from 76 affected lambs and up to 2223 unaffected lambs were used. On average, affected lambs had a 54.4 g/day reduction in growth rate from birth to weaning; at an average weaning age of 82 days this amounted to a 4.5 kg reduction in weaning weight. The pre-weaning mortality of affected lambs was 10% higher than for unaffected lambs. The only factors that were significantly associated with development of the disease were time of birth and birth area (groups of paddocks with similar physical characteristics) whereas there was no association with lamb birthweight, gender, litter size or vigour score or with dam age, body condition score or maternal behaviour score.

Association between hematological status at weaning and weight gain post-weaning in piglets

The objective of the study was to determine the associations between hematological parameters at weaning and post-weaning weight gain in piglets. Five well-managed conventional herds of average herd size of 1000 sows were selected. All herds provided a single injectable iron (either i.m. or s.c, 200mg) supplementation from different commerical products at 3–4 days of life. Within each herd, litters belonging to a weekly farrowing batch close to weaning were identified and among them 20 litters were chosen randomly after exclusion of nursing sows. Within each litter, a random piglet was selected. EDTA and non-stabilized blood sample was taken from the anterior Vena cava of each piglet 1–3 days before weaning (average weaning age of 25.7 days) and analyzed by complete hematology including serum iron and total iron binding capacity (TIBC). The associations between each measured hematological parameter and the average daily gain (ADG) of piglets in a three-week period were tested using PROC MIXED procedure in SAS. A total of 99 piglets were included in the study but 3 were lost during follow up. The average hemoglobin concentration of piglets was 121.5±15gl−1 and the ADG was 202.9±78.4g day−1. A positive association between hemoglobin and ADG in the three-week period (p=0.0003) was observed. Also, red blood cells (p<0.0001) and hematocrit (p=0.0005) had positive association with ADG while red blood cell distribution width (p=0.05), hemoglobin distribution width (p=0.04), and reticulocyte red cell distribution width (p=0.01) had a negative association with ADG. Hence the results indicate that improved hematological status at weaning is positively correlated to weight gain post-weaning. An increase in 10g hemoglobin/l blood corresponded to a weight gain improvement of 17.2g daily weight gain in the 3 weeks post-weaning period. The strategies for improving the hematological values of piglets at weaning need to be further investigated.

Variação da quantidade de leite ofertada e efeitos no desempenho de cabritos lactentes

The study was conducted with the objective to establish a nutritionally and economically satisfactory management during the suckling phase. Suckling using the traditional amount (1.5 kg milk/day) was compared to suckling according to the energy requirements of the animals (variable amount of milk) calculated by regression based on literature data. Animals receiving the traditional treatment presented a mean weight gain of 0.155 kg/day, which did not differ significantly (P≥0.05) from that of animals receiving a variable amount of milk (mean weight gain of 0.134 kg/day). The average weaning age was 76 days. Animals receiving variable amounts of milk ingested on average 20 kg less milk during the suckling period. Considering the results, the best suckling was obtained when the amount of milk was varied according to the energy requirements of goat kids.

On-farm reproductive performance and breeding objective of sheep in six selected Districts of Tigray, Northern Ethiopia..

The study was carried out in Atsibi Wonberta, Wukro Kilteawlaeo, Ofla, Alamata, Enderta and Degua Temben districts of Tigray Regional State of Ethiopia to assess the reproductive Performance and to describe the breeding objective of Sheep in the study area. A total of 12 peasant associations 2 from each district were selected randomly. A total of 180 households 30 from each district were selected randomly for the interview. Data were gathered through semi-structured questionnaire, focus group discussions and field observations. Data collected through questionnaire were described by descriptive statistics using JMP 5, 2002. In this study reproduction performance of sheep is assessed by their age at sexual maturity, age at first lambing, lambing interval, weaning age and lambing pattern. The overall estimated mean age at first lambing of ewes in the districts of Astibi-wonberta, Wukro-kilteawlaelo, Ofla, Alamata, Enderta and Degua-Tembien sheep was 18.15, 16.77, 16.7, 16.83, 17.77 and 16.77 months, respectively. The estimated mean lambing interval of highland sheep in Atsibi-Wonberta (9.6±0.7), Wukro-Kilteawlaelo (8.3±0.8), Ofla (6.3±0.7), Enderta (10.4±0.6), Deguatembien (8.4±0.5) and Afar (Elle) sheep in Alamata is 7.6±0.5 months respectively. The average weaning age of sheep in the study districts was three to six months. But, in Atsibi-wonberta (30%), Ofla (43.33%) and Enderta (36.67%) districts the average weaning age was greater than six months. Lambing of sheep was the highest during the months of December and November with an index value of 0.34 and 0.26, respectively. Generally the reproductive performance of sheep in this study area implies that the sheep breeds have acceptable age range for breeding though it is late compared to temperate breeds. In the study area for ram selection, farmers target was for breeding purpose and market value and fattening ability of the ram.&#x0D;

Genetic parameters of three methods of temperament evaluation of Brahman calves 1

The objective of this study was to estimate the heritability of 3 measures of temperament in Brahman and Brahman-influenced calves (n = 1,209). Individual animal pen scores (PS) were determined by a trained observer who evaluated groups of 5 or 4 calves at a time for willingness to be approached by a human. Exit velocity (EV) was the rate (m/s) at which each calf exited a squeeze chute. Temperament score (TS) was calculated individually as (PS + EV)/2. Temperament was evaluated at 5 different times of record (28 d preweaning, weaning, 28 d postweaning, 56 d postweaning, and yearling). Contemporary groups (n = 34) comprised calves of the same sex born in the same season of the same year. There were an average of 36 calves per contemporary group and group size ranged from 3 to 78 calves. Average weaning age (186 d) ranged from 105 to 304 d. Calves were born from 2002 through 2012. Random effects included additive genetic and the permanent environmental variance. The fixed effects analyzed were age of dam, sex of calf, contemporary group, fraction of Brahman (2 levels: 1 and 0.5), age of calf at record, and weaning age. At weaning, the mean PS was 2.68 ± 0.1, the mean EV was 2.41 ± 0.1, and the mean TS was 2.48 ± 0.1. The PS was affected by fraction of Brahman (P = 0.034) and tended to be affected by age of dam (P = 0.06). The EV was affected by contemporary group (P < 0.001) and tended to be affected by weaning age (P = 0.074). Contemporary group affected TS (P < 0.001). All 3 methods of temperament evaluation were affected by time of record (P < 0.001). The regression coefficients for PS, EV, and TS were 0.0023 ± 0.0014, 0.0022 ± 0.0012, and 0.0015 ± 0.0012 m·s(-1)·d(-1) of age, respectively. Estimates of maternal genetic effects were always 0 and omitted from final models. Estimates of heritability were 0.27 ± 0.1, 0.49 ± 0.1, and 0.43 ± 0.1 for EV, PS, and TS, respectively. Estimates of permanent environmental variances as proportions of phenotypic variance were 0.33 ± 0.1, 0.23 ± 0.1, and 0.33 ± 0.1 for EV, PS, and TS, respectively. There appears to be sufficient additive genetic variance for selective improvement of temperament characteristics in Brahman cattle.

Study the Live Weight and Live Weight Gain of Black Bengal and Jamunapari Goat Breeds by Fitting the Linear Regression under Semi-intensive Conditions

The present study was conducted to know the live weight gain of goats under semi-intensive conditions of Chittagong district of Bangladesh during the period of July, 2012 to January, 2013. Data were collected from 72 black Bengal and 32 Jamunapari goats and the kids birth weight and their subsequent live weight at weekly intervals up to age and weight of weaning at sexual maturity was recorded. The weight gains from birth to sexual maturity of two different breeds under 2 different farms were studied. Average birth weight of male and female black Bengal goats kids were 1.22 +/- 0.15, 1.01 +/- 0.14, 1.42 +/- 0.10 and 1.12 +/- 0.27 kg, respectively for farm 1 and 2. For Jamunapari goat's kid birth weight were 1.51 +/- 0.07 and 1.42 +/- 0.09 kg, for male and females, respectively in the farm 2. The average weaning age was 4 months and the average weaning weight of male and female black Bengal goats were 5.19 +/- 0.358, 5.05 +/- 0.28, 5.63 +/- 0.61 and 5.54 +/- 0.41 kg, in the farm 1 and 2, respectively. However, the average weaning weight of male and female Jamunapari was 6.59 +/- 0.69 and 6.79 +/- 0.31 kg, respectively in farm 2 which was higher than black Bengal. The average age at sexual maturity of black Bengal goat was 8 months. The average weight at sexual maturity of male and female black Bengal goats were 9.82 +/- 0.75 and 9.52 +/- 0.62 kg, respectively in farm 1 and 9.65 +/- 0.75 and 9.138 +/- 0.70 kg, respectively in farm 2. The average age at sexual maturity was 9 months for Jamunapari goat. The average weight at sexual maturity of male and female Jamunapari goats was 13.2 +/- 0.75 and 14.1 +/- 0.82 kg, respectively. The average daily body weight gain from birth to weaning for male and female black Bengal goat was 33.70, 35.11 g day(-1) and was 35.67 and 45.94 g day(-1), respectively in farm 1 and 2 and for Jamunapari goat was 42.97 and 45.47 g day(-1), respectively. The males were grew faster than the females. The predicted live weight gains for both breeds were lowered after fitting the linear regression. The co-efficient of determination (R(2)) of male and female black Bengal and Jamunapari goats kids similar.

CHARACTERIZATION OF ZARAIBI GOAT PRODUCTION SYSTEMS IN DELTA REGION OF EGYPT

Personal interviews with 40 goat owners were conducted in three representative areas (Damietta, Port Said and Dakahlia) located in north delta, where Zaraibi goats are prevailing. The survey was carried out using structured questionnaires, during the period from February to August 2010, containing a total of 90 items grouped into goat owner production resources, management practices, goat production performance and their production constraints. The majority of households (75%) kept only goat herds and 25% owned both sheep and goats. The mean flock size was 12.6 heads, of which 53.74% consisted of does, 22.82% male kids, 19% female kids and 4.3% bucks. About 60% of the goat keepers keep goats mainly for saving purpose, the second main reason for income generation (30%), however, keeping goats for meat and milk purposes were ranked as third (5.9%) and fourth (4.5%) order, respectively. Usually the rate of majority of farmers supplementing females at suckling and late pregnancy stages 82.5 and 70%, respectively. In studied areas, 74.4% of breeders have their Zaraibi bucks. Average weaning age and marketing age were 4 and 7.5 months, respectively. Average weaning weight under household conditions was estimated as 14.8 kg. Average litter size has been recorded as 2.16 kids. Pre-weaning and post-weaning mortality were estimated as 11.47 and 2.76%, respectively. Kidding interval of goat farmer’s is estimated as 250 days. Female post-weaning sales (14.19%) was found to be lower than selling adult does. Female kids growth rate and physical characteristics had higher reasons for disposal of 67.5 and 50%, respectively. On the other hand, cash need, disease, slaughter for home consumption and injury had lower reasons for disposal of 12.5, 5.0, 2.5 and 2.5%, respectively. The poor fertility performance and cash need had higher reason for disposal for adult Zaraibi females. Goat milk is used mainly for suckling kids (58%), home consumption (39%) and supplementary income to the smallholder (3%).

148 PIGLET GROWTH AND BLOOD COMPONENTS DURING LACTATION FOLLOWING RECIPROCAL EMBRYO TRANSFER BETWEEN MEISHAN AND WHITE CROSSBRED GILTS

Sow productivity has a significant economic impact on the swine industry and is influenced by several factors, including preweaning piglet mortality. In Western breeds, low birth weight piglets exhibit the greatest susceptibility to preweaning mortality. In contrast, Meishan (MS) piglets have decreased birth weights but lower preweaning mortality rates, suggesting that birth weight is not the sole component of preweaning survival. The objective of the current study was to determine the contributions of the maternal and piglet breed and their interactions on piglet growth and blood components pertaining to survivability during lactation following reciprocal embryo transfer between MS and White crossbred (WC) gilts. Twenty-five successful pregnancies were produced by embryo transfer in 2 farrowing seasons that represented all maternal and piglet breed combinations; MS × MS (n = 4 litters), MS × WC (n = 7 litters), WC × MS (n = 7 litters), and WC × WC (n = 7 litters). At Day 1, 10, and weaning (average weaning age = 18 days), piglets (n = 147, 97, and 94, respectively at Day 1, 10, and weaning) were weighed and blood samples were taken. Hematocrit, hemoglobin, glucose, nitrogen, nonesterified fatty acids, albumin, and cortisol were measured in all blood samples. All data were analysed for ANOVA using mixed model procedures. Piglet weights were greater (P &lt; 0.001) throughout lactation in piglets from WC dams regardless of piglet breed. As a result, average daily gains from Days 1 to 10 and weaning were greater (P &lt; 0.05) in piglets from WC dams. There were significant (P &lt; 0.001) maternal × piglet × day interactions for hematocrit and hemoglobin levels in which levels were greatest at Day 1 in MS piglets from WC dams and at Day 10 in MS piglets from MS dams but decreased in WC piglets from WC dams at Day 1. Glucose was greater (P &lt; 0.05) at Day 1 in piglets from WC dams regardless of piglet breed but was greater (P &lt; 0.05) at weaning in WC piglets regardless of maternal breed. Nitrogen was similar at Day 1 for all maternal and piglet breed combinations, but at Day 10 and weaning, nitrogen levels were greater (P &lt; 0.001) in MS piglets regardless of maternal breed. Nonesterified fatty acid was greater throughout lactation in piglets from MS dams irrespective of piglet breed. Albumin was greater (P &lt; 0.05) in MS piglets throughout lactation regardless of maternal breed. Cortisol was not different between the maternal and piglet breed combinations throughout lactation, but cortisol was greater (P &lt; 0.001) at Day 1 compared with Day 10 and weaning. This study demonstrated that piglet growth during lactation was influenced more by maternal breed in favor of WC dams, which supports previous crossbreeding studies. However, blood components pertaining to survivability displayed complex interactions between the piglet and maternal breed, which may signify possible mechanisms for improved preweaning survivability of MS pigs.

A cross-sectional study of risk factors associated with pulmonary lesions in pigs at slaughter

A cross-sectional study was conducted to identify herd-level factors that may influence the prevalence and severity of macroscopically visible pulmonary lesions in pigs at slaughter. Data were collected following abattoir inspection of 50 randomly-selected batches of 6335 pigs and by interviewing the producers. Macroscopic lung lesions were identified and scored semi-quantitatively in ≥ 80 pigs/herd and the prevalence of pleuritis and pneumonia was 20.76% and 23.85%, respectively. Following multivariable analysis, the seroprevalence of Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae (P < 0.001) and Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae (P = 0.018) and the number of pigs/nursery pen (P = 0.023) were positively associated, whereas average weaning age was negatively associated (P = 0.001) with the pleuritis score. Risk factors associated with a higher prevalence of pneumonia were the presence of pleuritis (P = 0.001) and the frequent purchasing of pigs (P = 0.020). The findings of this study indicate that the prevalence of pleuritis and pneumonia remains high in Belgium and management factors are central to disease control.

Effect of Dried Brewers Yeast on Growth Performance of Nursing and Weanling Pigs

Three experiments were conducted to evaluate the effect of dried brewers yeast (DBY) as a protein source in prewean (creep) and nursery diets on growth performance of nursing and weanling pigs. In Exp. 1, sows and gilts were provided ad libitum access to the same lactation diet. Litters at 5 d of age were assigned to 1) no prewean feed, 2) a control diet, or 3) the control diet with 4% DBY by replacing soybean meal, available until an average weaning age of 21 d. At weaning, pigs within litters were assigned to 1) a control or 2) the control+4% DBY, resulting in 6 treatments (3 x 2 factorial arrangement) for the nursery period. During the prewean period, there were no differences (P>0.10) in average pig weaning weight or ADG between pigs fed the no prewean diet, the control diet, or the DBY diet. In the nursery period, pigs fed DBY had increased (P=0.05) ADG and G:F during phase 1 and increased (P<0.10) overall ADG compared with pigs fed the control diet. Pigs fed DBY during the prewean and nursery periods had increased ADG compared with pigs not fed DBY during the nursery period (prewean x nursery interaction, P<0.09). In Exp. 2 and 3, weanling pigs (initial BW=5 kg and 18 d of age) were fed during the first 7 d postweaning. In Exp. 2, pigs were assigned to the same phase 1 treatments of Exp. 1. No differences (P>0.10) were observed in ADG, ADFI, or G:F. In Exp. 3, pigs were assigned to 1) the control+5% spray-dried animal plasma or 2) the control+5% DBY without spray-dried animal plasma. No differences (P>0.10) were observed in ADG, ADFI, or G:F. Based on our results, DBY can be used in prewean and phase 1 nursery diets with no negative effects on growth performance of nursing and weanling pigs.

Analysis of longevity and exterior traits on Large White sows in Switzerland1

Records of length of productive life, from first farrowing to culling, of 16,464 Large White purebred sows from SUISAG were studied using survival analysis. The major aims of the study were to model the risk of culling within parity and to assess the influence of exterior traits, such as the number of teats or feet and leg scores, on culling. Culling was concentrated at the first day after each farrowing or at the first day after weaning. Weaning itself was mostly between 21 and 49 d after farrowing, with an average weaning age of 35 d. Because of the definition of culling date used, there was practically no risk of culling from these periods. The culling rates at different periods suggested a modeling of the baseline hazard function within parity instead of over the entire productive life of the animals. A piecewise Weibull function and a simple graphical method to validate its adequacy were proposed for sow longevity analysis. The risk of culling increased with older parities (P < 0.001) and with decreasing litter size at weaning (P < 0.001). The exterior traits analyzed (number of teats, and feet and leg scores, on a scale from 1 to 7) had a moderate effect on the risk of culling compared with other factors but were still influential on survival, productive life expectancy, and annual replacement rate. Sows with less than 13 good teats had 1.35 times greater risk of being culled than sows with more good teats (P < 0.05). Sows with an X-O rear leg score of 2 had 1.4 times greater risk of being culled than sows with an intermediate score of 4 (P < 0.05). Sows at the optimum score of 4 for the size of inner claws of the rear leg had 0.83 times less risk of being culled (P < 0.01) than sows with scores of 2 and 3. Furthermore, when a phenotypic index for feet and legs was used to group these variables, the effect was highly significant (P < 0.001). Therefore, a means to improve longevity is through phenotypic selection of replacement gilts based on exterior traits: gilts with 13 or less good teats or with extreme feet and leg scores should be culled. From a genetic point of view, sows with the best value in the current index for exterior traits had a lower risk of culling (P < 0.01), and therefore, it is possible to obtain a response for sow longevity via indirect selection for exterior traits. From 1999 to 2003, the trend has been to eliminate extreme animals on exterior traits. This may partly explain the improvement of sow length of productive life longevity from 560 d in 2000 to nearly 710 d in 2003 observed in the data set.

Effects of replacing pharmacological levels of dietary zinc oxide with lower dietary levels of various organic zinc sources for weanling pigs1,2

Two 28-d randomized complete block design experiments were conducted to evaluate the effects of concentrations and sources of Zn on growth performance of nursery pigs. Seven stations participated in Exp. 1, which evaluated the efficacy of replacing 2,500 ppm of Zn from ZnO with 125, 250, or 500 ppm of Zn from Zn methionine. A control diet with 125 ppm of supplemental Zn was included at all stations. A total of 615 pigs were used in 26 replicates. Average weaning age was 20.6 d and the average initial BW was 6.3 kg. There were no differences in any growth response among the three supplemental Zn methionine levels fed in Exp. 1. Zinc supplementation from Zn methionine improved ADG compared with the control during all phases (P < 0.05), due primarily to an increase in ADFI. Pigs fed 2,500 ppm of Zn from ZnO gained faster (P < 0.01) than those fed the control diet during all phases, and faster (P < 0.05) than those fed supplemental Zn from Zn methionine for the 28-d experiment. Differences in gain were again due mainly to differences in feed intake. A second experiment compared five sources of supplemental organic Zn (500 ppm of Zn) with 500 and 2,000 ppm supplemental Zn from ZnO and a control (140 ppm total Zn). Six stations used a total of 624 pigs, with an average weaning age of 20.4 d and averaging 6.2 kg BW in 15 replicates. Pigs fed 2,000 ppm of Zn from ZnO gained faster (P < 0.05) than pigs fed the control or any of the 500 ppm of Zn treatments (ZnO or organic Zn). Pigs fed the 2,000 ppm of Zn from ZnO also consumed more feed than those receiving 500 ppm of Zn from ZnO or from any of the organic Zn sources (P < 0.05). Organic sources of Zn did not improve gain, feed intake, or feed efficiency beyond that achieved with the control diet. Supplemental Zn at a concentration of 500 ppm, whether in the form of the oxide or in an organic form, was not as efficacious for improved ADG as 2,000 to 2,500 ppm of Zn from ZnO.

Trophic level and macronutrient shift effects associated with the weaning process in the postclassic Maya

The weaning process was investigated at two Maya sites dominated by Postclassic remains: Marco Gonzalez (100 BC-AD 1350) and San Pedro (1400-AD 1650), Belize. Bone collagen and bioapatite were analyzed from 67 individuals (n < or = 6 years = 15, n > 6 years = 52). Five isotopic measures were used to reconstruct diet and weaning: stable nitrogen- and carbon-isotope ratios in collagen, stable carbon- and oxygen-isotope ratios in bioapatite, and the difference in stable carbon-isotope values of coexisting collagen and bioapatite. Nitrogen-isotope ratios in infant collagen from both sites are distinct from adult females, indicating a trophic level effect. Collagen-to-bioapatite differences in infant bone from both sites are distinct from adult females, indicating a shift in macronutrients. Oxygen-isotope ratios in infant bioapatite from both sites are also distinct from adult females, indicating the consumption of breast milk. Among infants, carbon- and nitrogen-isotope ratios vary, indicating death during different stages in the weaning process. The ethnohistoric and paleopathological literature on the Maya indicate cessation of breast-feeding between ages 3-4 years. Isotopic data from Marco Gonzalez and San Pedro also indicate an average weaning age of 3-4 years. Based on various isotopic indicators, weaning likely began around age 12 months. This data set is not only important for understanding the weaning process during the Postclassic, but also demonstrates the use of collagen-to-bioapatite spacing as an indicator of macronutrient shifts associated with weaning.