Average Emergence Time Research Articles

Physiological Potential of Seeds of Perennial Soybean cv. Comum Coated with Different Materials

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of different seed coatings on the physiological potential of perennial soybean cv. Comum. The following treatments were tested: control (no coating); limestone + polyvinyl acetate (PVA); limestone + sand + PVA; limestone + charcoal + PVA; calcium silicate + PVA; calcium silicate + sand + PVA; and calcium silicate + charcoal + PVA. Seeds were evaluated for water content (WC), maximum diameter (MAD), minimum diameter (MID), 1000-seed weight (TSW), germination test, germination speed index (GSI), average germination time (AGT), emergence, emergence speed index (ESI), average emergence time (AET), shoot length (SL), root length (RL), dry and fresh matter of shoots (SDM and SFM), and dry and fresh matter of root (RDM and RFM). Coatings influenced GSI, AGT, emergence, and ESI, but germination was unaffected. The use of silicate with or without charcoal led to the same AET as that observed in the uncoated seeds. Coatings did not affect SFM, SDM, or RFM. Coating with limestone + sand + PVA or limestone + charcoal + PVA led to increases in SL, SFM, SDM, RFM, and RDM.

Effect of temperature on passion fruit emergence and seedling vigor

Abstract: Seedlings for commercial growing of passion fruit are preferentially acquired through seeds. Success in germination and seedling emergence, in turn, is influenced by the genetic constitution of the progenies and the thermal conditions imposed on the growth environment. The aim of this study was to evaluate the emergence and vigor of seedlings of passion fruit cultivars exposed to different temperatures. The experiment was conducted in a germination chamber at the Unidade de Ensino, Pesquisa e Extensão / Pomar Campus of the Department of Plant Science of the Universidade Federal de Viçosa (UFV). The study was carried out in 5 × 3 factorial arrangement, with five temperature ranges (5-15, 10-20, 15-25, 20-30 and 25-35 °C) and three varieties of passion fruit (BRS Sol do Cerrado, BRS Gigante Amarelo and FB-200 Yellow Master) in a completely randomized design with six replications of 25 seeds per plot. The variables analyzed were the percentage, the speed index, and the average time of emergence, shoot length, total length, and seedling dry matter. The cultivars BRS Sol do Cerrado and BRS Gigante Amarelo exhibited seedling emergence of over 95% in the temperature ranges of 20-30 °C and 25-35 °C. Alternating temperatures from 20-30 °C stimulates seedling emergence, seedling growth, and greater accumulation of seedling dry matter.

English

The sesame fruits present differences on maturity due to their position on the plant stem. Thus, the objective of this paper is to evaluate the physiological quality of sesame seeds from three fruits locations on the plant stem (lower, middle and upper thirds) due to fertilizing with cattle manure (0, 20, 40 and 60 t.ha-1). We evaluated the germination percentage, first germination count, germination speed index, average germination time, accelerated-aged seeds germination and electrical conductivity of seeds. In addition, to evaluate seedling establishment we observed emergence percentage, emergence speed index, and average emergence time, as well as length and dry mass of seedlings. The experimental arrange used was entirely randomized in a factorial scheme (3×4) with four repetitions, and means were compared through the Tukey test at 5% probability. The fruits position on the plant stem influenced the sesame seeds quality. The yellowish green fruits from middle third of stem, as well as yellowish ones from lower third of stem showed best results for most variables evaluated. Seed vigor was positively influenced by cattle manure application in the soil; however, fertilizing did not have any effect on seeds germination. Key words: Sesamum indicum L., germination, organic agriculture, seed maturation, seeds vigor.

English

Eugenia involucrata DC. (Myrtaceae) stands out by its ecological potential, and it is indicated in planting in degraded areas and permanent preserved areas. Because of its importance, the work aimed to evaluate the effect of different container volumes and concentrations of controlled release fertilizer (CRF) in the seedlings emergence and the seedlings growth of E. involucrata in nursery. The experiment was conducted in Laboratory of Silviculture and Forest Nursery, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil. The fruits of E. involucrata were collected from eight trees in a fragment of Subtropical Seasonal Forest. For installation of the experiment, substrate which constituted of a mixture of 80% of commercial substrate mixed to 20% of carbonized rice husk was used. In this study, two container volumes (tubes with 110 and 180 cm3 of capacity) and five doses of CRF (0, 3, 6, 9 and 12 g L-1), were evaluated with four repetitions, using completely randomized design. The emergence variables, the emergence speed index and average time of emergence were analyzed, besides the height, stem diameter and relation height/diameter of the stem. The seedlings emergence had the beginning at 77 days after sowing, and it was established at 126 days. For production of seedlings indicated the use of container of 180 cm3, allied to the dose of 12 g L-1 of CRF. Nevertheless, considering the long time necessary to the emergence and the slow species growth, the topdressing will be necessary since this fertilizer presents determined time of efficiency. Key words: Native species, fertilizing, forest nursery.

Propagation of <i>Garcinia kola</i> (Heckel) by stem and root cuttings

The availability of appropriate propagation techniques is a major constraint to the domestication of the forest trees widely used by rural communities; such as (Heckel). This study tested the ability of root and stem cuttings to regenerate vegetatively when treated with indole-3-butyric acid (IBA), and set in non-mist poly-propagator within a shaded nursery. It found that is amenable to propagation by softwood stem cuttings. Attention was given to the effect of cutting age (softwood, semi hardwood) and IBA application with regard to the sprouting and rooting efficiency. Bud and leaf emergence time were also investigated, as was the coppicing ability of the stump. Results revealed that roots and branches from mature forest trees did not sprout under any culture conditions. The highest percentages of rooting (70–85%) were obtained with softwood cuttings set in non-mist poly-propagator, regardless of hormonal treatment. The mean numbers of buds (2.9 ± 0.4) and roots (2.6 ± 0.1) produced by softwood cuttings was significantly greater than those obtained in the Control. The best average emergence time of buds (25.1 days ± 9.3) and leaves (36.8days ± 8.4) was obtained with cuttings treated with IBA and set in non-mist poly-propagator against, 54.4 ± 12.5 and 72.6 ± 3.4 days respectively for the Control. In general, non-mist poly-propagator gave the best propagation results. When coppiced, the shoots emerging from stumps with one node were the most vigorous.Garcinia kola G. kola

Emergência e estabelecimento de plântulas de pinhão manso em função de posições e profundidades de semeadura

Considering the lack of search results related to physic nut (Jatropha curcas L.) cultivation was carried out this work to study the position and sowing depth effects on the emergence and early growth of seedlings originated from seeds from different sources, a batch from Campina Grande, PB, and another coming from Uberlandia, MG. We conducted an experiment using a completely randomized design with four replications of 25 seeds arranged in a factorial 3 x 3 (positions and depths). The treatments consisted of different positions of the seeds in the soil: caruncule side up, forming an angle of 0 degrees in relation to an imaginary axis perpendicular to the ground; caruncule to the side, forming an angle of 90 degrees to the imaginary axis and caruncule face down, forming an angle of 180 degrees to the imaginary axis at depths of 2, 4 and 6 cm. In order to evaluate the effects of treatments were determinate percentage of emergence, emergence rate index, average time of emergence, plant height, stem diameter, number of leaves, leaf area and height/stem diameter ratio. The best way of sowing physic nut seeds is with the caruncule down at 4 mm depth.

Métodos para acelerar e uniformizar a emergência de plântulas de Schizolobium amazonicum

A dormência intensa verificada em sementes de Schizolobium amazonicum dificulta o processo de formação de mudas. O objetivo deste trabalho foi testar procedimentos para acelerar e uniformizar a emergência de plântulas de paricá. Foram utilizadas sementes coletadas de diversas matrizes na Floresta Estadual do Antimary, Acre. Os tratamentos constaram de sementes intactas (testemunha), escarificação com ácido sulfúrico concentrado (imersão por 5; 10; 15; 20; 25; 30; 35; 40; 45 e 50 min), imersão em água aquecida (60 ºC, 80 ºC e 100 ºC), escarificação da porção basal da semente com lixa, escarificação com punção por meio de perfurações na maior porção lateral do tegumento, e escarificação com esmeril elétrico na lateral do tegumento. Os efeitos dos tratamentos foram avaliados por meio da emergência de plântulas (EP) e do índice de velocidade de emergência (IVE) em seis momentos de observação, além da frequencia relativa e do tempo médio de emergência nos melhores resultados. O delineamento estatístico foi o inteiramente casualizado com quatro repetições em esquema fatorial para a EP e em arranjo simples para o IVE. A máxima EP em menor tempo pode ser conseguida com uso do punção, imersão em água fervente (100 ºC) e do esmeril elétrico.

Emergência e desenvolvimento de mudas de tomate IPA 6 em substratos, contendo esterco ovino

A busca por substratos alternativos, que possam substituir produtos comerciais na produção de mudas de tomate, é de fundamental importância para a redução dos custos nessa fase inicial da cultura. Objetivou-se, com esta pesquisa, avaliar a qualidade de mudas de tomate industrial IPA 6, produzidas com substratos à base de esterco ovino. O experimento foi conduzido em viveiro da Universidade Federal Rural de Pernambuco, Unidade Acadêmica de Serra Talhada, de 16 de fevereiro a 30 de março de 2012. Utilizou-se o delineamento inteiramente casualizado, com quatro repetições. Os tratamentos avaliados foram: T1 - [substrato comercial]; T2 - [esterco ovino + areia (1:1)]; T3 - [esterco ovino + areia (2:1)]; T4 - [esterco ovino + areia (3:1)]; T5 - [esterco ovino + solo (1:1)]; T6 - [esterco ovino + solo (2:1)]; T7 - [esterco ovino + solo (3:1)]; T8 - [esterco ovino + areia + solo (1:1:1)];T9 - [esterco ovino + areia + solo (2:1:1)]; T10 - [esterco ovino + areia + solo (3:1:1)]. Os indicadores de emergência avaliados foram: percentagem, índice de velocidade e tempo médio de emergência. Analisaram-se as seguintes características de desenvolvimento: número de folhas, altura de plântula, diâmetro de caule, comprimento de raízes, massa da matéria seca da parte aérea e das raízes. O substrato comercial proporcionou melhor vigor de mudas de tomate IPA 6. Por outro lado, o uso do esterco ovino mais solo (2:1), para compor substratos alternativos constituiu-se opção viável para a produção de mudas desse cultivar.

Predicting the emergence of the codling moth,Cydia pomonella(Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), on a degree-day scale in North America

Codling moth, Cydia pomonella (L.) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), is a major pest of apple, pear and walnut production in North America. Management programs are based on preventing larval entry into the fruit or nut and are typically timed by heat-driven models that are synchronized to field populations by first capture of overwintering moths in pheromone traps. Unfortunately, trap capture is affected by a range of environmental parameters as well as by the use of mating disruption, which makes detecting first flight difficult, thus complicating implementation of management programs. The present goal was to evaluate data collected from a broad range of locations across North America to see whether average first spring emergence times could be predicted. Average emergence time on a degree-day scale from 1 January was predictable using latitude and elevation. Sites at elevations of <400 m fit a simple quadratic equation using latitude, but, when higher elevations were included, a multiple regression using elevation was required. The present models can be used to simplify management programs for codling moth in areas where heat-driven models that require extensive trapping to synchronize with emergence are currently used.

Armazenamento e métodos para a superação da dormência de sementes de mulungu

The coral tree (Erythrina velutina Willd.) is an arboreal species that occurs in northeast Brazil and is used in popular medicine to fight cough, asthma, oral diseases, nervous breakdowns, muscle aches and fevers. The process of formation of seedlings of the species is difficult because of the occurrence of seed dormancy. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of different methods for overcoming dormancy in seeds of the coral tree stored in different conditions and periods. The experimental design was completely randomized in factorial scheme 5 x 2 (methods for overcoming dormancy and storage types), in four replicates of 25 seeds. The methods used were (S1) control, (S2) scarification opposite the micropyle; (S3) by the scarification micropyle; (S4) seeds immersed in water at 80 °C for five minutes and (S5) seeds immersed in water at 100 °C for two minutes. The storage types were for 25 months at cold chamber and for a month at the laboratory environment. The characteristics evaluated were emergence percentage (PE), time of emergence (TM), shoot length (CPA) and root (CR), diameter (D), leaf number (NF), dry biomass of roots (MSPA) and of shoots (MSR) of seedlings. The emergence percentage was low in treatments S1, S4 and S5 and the seeds stored for one month were more affected when immersed in hot water. The highest values of CPA, CR, MSPA and NF treatments were observed in S2 and S3, which occurred in the lowest average time of emergence. The tegument dormancy of seeds of Erythrina velutina is overcome by scarification with sandpaper on the end opposite the micropyle or next to it. The seed dormancy is not affected by the types of storage and is not overcome by immersion in hot water.

Hypercapnic hyperventilation shortens emergence time from Propofol and Isoflurane anesthesia.

Objective:The aim of this study is to compare the effects of hypercapnic hyperventilation and normocapnic normoventilation on emergence time from propofol and isoflurane anesthesia.Methods:In this clinical trial, the differences in emergence time were evaluated in 80 patients undergoing elective abdominal surgery in Alzahra University hospital, Isfahan, Iran, in 2011-2012. Patients were randomly divided into four groups (groups 1-4) receiving isoflurane hypercapnic hyperventilation, isoflurane normocapnic normoventilation, propofol hypercapnic hyperventilation, and propofol normocapnic normoventilation, respectively. Hypercapnia was maintained by adding CO2 to the patient's inspired gas during hyperventilation. The emergence time and the duration of stay in recovery room in the four groups were measured and compared by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and least significant difference tests.Findings:The average emergence time in groups 1, 2, 3, and 4 were (11.3 ± 3.2), (15.2 ± 3.8), (9 ± 4.2) and (11.8 ± 5.3) min, respectively. These differences were significant (P = 0.001). In patients receiving propofol hypercapnic hyperventilation, the emergence time was faster than in other groups. There was also a significant difference in duration of stay in recovery room between the groups (P = 0.004). Patients who received isoflurane hypercapnic hyperventilation had a shortest length of stay in the recovery room.Conclusion:The emergence time after intravenous anesthesia with propofol can be shortened significantly by using hyperventilation and hypercapnia, without any side effects.

Quality of maize seeds harvested and husked at high moisture levels

Harvest of maize seeds with high moisture levels has been recommended; nevertheless, after harvest, the ears undergo the process of husking and there is a need to assess the compatibility of these processes. The purpose of this study was to assess the effects of mechanical husking on the quality of maize seeds collected at high moisture levels. Dent BM 3061 hybrid maize seeds, manually collected from the ear, with moisture contents of 45%, 40% and 35%, and a 20/64 round sieve were used. The ears were mechanically husked (CWA machine, 312 rpm), dried in a stationary drier at 35 ⁰C until reaching 22% moisture, followed by drying at 42 ºC until reaching 12%. Then, they underwent shelling, followed by a chemical treatment with Maxin® + K-obiol® + Actellic®. Seed quality was assessed according to the occurrence tests of mechanical damage, first count, germination, seedling emergence, emergence speed index, average emergence time, electrical conductivity, accelerated aging, cold test, and seed health test at every quarter for 9 months. The mechanical husking affects maize seed quality, depending on the degree of seed moisture at harvest and on the material studied. This hybrid's seeds can be collected with seed moisture levels at 40% with the use of mechanical husking.

Olive Seed Germination and Initial Seedling Vigor as Influenced by Stratification Treatment and the Female Parent

The germination of seeds and the growth of the generated plant are two phases of great importance in an olive breeding program. In this work, three stratification treatments and five cultivars (Hojiblanca, Manzanilla Cacereña, Manzanilla de Sevilla, Toffahi, and Uovo di Piccione) used as female parents in a breeding program for table olive were evaluated along two years to improve germination protocols. The stratification treatments affected seed germination (percent seeds with radicle), radicle length, seedling emergence (percent emerged hypocotyls), and the average time of emergence. The cultivars have shown great variability with respect to the requirements of the seeds and seedling growth performance. None of the treatments with heat application (25 °C) after chill (14 °C) improved the percentage of germinated seeds and seedling emergence in any year compared with the control treatment (30 days at 14 °C). Cultivars such as Manzanilla de Sevilla and Toffahi seem to be a good choice of female progenitors to improve emergence rates and to obtain early vigorous progenies, a character that has been related to a shorter juvenile period of the seedlings. Moreover, in these progenies, a clear lower apical dominance was found from the first stages of seedling growth. The olive fruit and seed traits were also influenced by the female parent. In fact, ‘Hojiblanca’ and ‘Uovo di Piccione’ showed a higher number of empty seed fruits and double seed fruits compared with the other studied cultivars.

Delayed awakening in dystonia patients undergoing deep brain stimulation surgery

We aimed to identify the incidence, duration and causes of delayed emergence from anesthesia in patients with dystonia undergoing surgery for deep brain stimulation (DBS) placement. A retrospective review of patients with dystonia who underwent DBS placement was conducted and the following characteristics were noted: age, gender, comorbid conditions, American Society of Anesthesiologists classification, anesthetic agents used, amount of initial dose, amount of infusion dose, duration of the infusion and the time needed for emergence. Twenty-four patients underwent 33 DBS procedures for dystonia. Propofol was administered to 21 patients, in 29 of the 33 procedures. Dexmedetomidine was administered to three patients, in four procedures. The average propofol loading dose was 0.7 mg/kg, and the infusion rate was 80 μg/kg per minute (min), for an average duration of 89 min. The average time of emergence was 36 min. Only 31% of patients emerged from propofol anesthesia during the expected time frame, 69% of patients had some degree of delayed emergence, and 24% had a significant delay in emergence. Delayed emergence was more common in younger patients due to the higher loading doses these patients received. This study shows a 69% incidence of delayed emergence in dystonia patients undergoing DBS surgery. It also suggests an association between delayed emergence and younger patients who receive higher loading doses. A possible cause of delayed emergence is excessive anesthetic potentiation of the low output pallidal state in dystonia which may depress the pallido-thalamo-cortical circuitry. Delayed emergence could also result from depression of the previously affected ventral pallidal inputs to the septo-hippocampal system that mediates general anesthesia and awareness. Complex neurotransmitter disturbances may also be involved.

Effects of various strip widths and tractor forward speeds in strip tillage on soil physical properties and yield of silage corn

Koruyucu toprak işleme uygulamaları arasında önemli bir yere sahip olan şeritsel toprak işlemede toprak şeritler halinde işlenmektedir. İşlenen şeritlere tohum ekilmekte, işlenmeyen şerit araları ise olduğu gibi bitki artıkları ile örtülü olarak bırakılmaktadır. Bunun sonucunda, su ve rüzgar erozyonu önlenmekte böylece toprak nemi muhafaza edilmektedir. Bu çalışmada, farklı şerit genişliklerinin silajlık mısırda tarla filizi çıkışı, bitki gelişimi ve silaj verimine olan etkilerinin belirlenmesi amacıyla tarla koşullarında 2 yıllık bir deneme yürütülmüştür. Şeritsel toprak işleme için, bu amaca uygun hale getirilen, C tipi bıçaklara sahip bir frezeli ara çapa makinasından yararlanılmıştır. Frezeli ara çapa makinası bıçaklarının flanş bağlantı konumları değiştirilerek elde edilen 22.5, 30 ve 37.5 cm genişliklerindeki şeritlerle tarla yüzeyinin sırasıyla % 30, % 40 ve % 50’si işlenmiştir. 370 d min -1 sabit rotor dönme hızı ve 10 cm iş derinliğinde kullanılan frezeli ara çapa makinası ile farklı toprak parçalama değerleri elde etmek için 1.8, 3.6 ve 5.4 km h -1 ’ten oluşan 3 farklı traktör ilerleme hızında çalışılmıştır. Ekim, hassas ekim makinası kullanılarak 70 cm sıra aralığında yapılmıştır. Elde edilen sonuçlara göre, şerit genişliğinin artışı toprak sıcaklığını arttırırken, buharlaşmayı hızlandırdığından dolayı, toprak nem içeriğinin azalmasına neden olmuştur. Tarla filizi çıkışı, bitki boyu ve silaj verimi şerit genişliğinin artmasıyla artarken, ortalama çıkış süresi şerit genişliği artışı ile azalmıştır. Traktör ilerleme hızı toprağın parçalanması üzerinde etkili olmuştur. İlerleme hızı arttıkça, küçük toprak parçacıklarının dağılımında azalma meydana gelmiştir. Traktör ilerleme hızının diğer parametreler üzerinde istatistiksel olarak önemli bir etkiye sahip olmadığı ortaya çıkmıştır.

QUALIDADE FÍSICA E FISIOLÓGICA DAS CIPSELAS DE Piptocarpha angustifolia Dusén ex Malme DE DIFERENTES POPULAÇÕES E ÁRVORES PORTA-SEMENTES

Este trabalho teve como objetivo determinar a influência de diferentes populações e árvores porta-sementes na qualidade física e fisiológica das sementes de Piptocarpha angustifolia (vassourão-branco). Selecionaram-se três populações no planalto norte de Santa Catarina, Brasil, coletando-se as cipselas de doze árvores porta-sementes por população. Avaliou-se pureza, umidade, peso, dimensões, germinação, emergência e vigor das cipselas. Os ensaios obedeceram a um delineamento inteiramente casualizado em arranjo fatorial de forma hierárquica. As diferenças entre populações e árvores porta-sementes foram testadas pela ANOVA, e as médias submetidas ao teste de Tukey e Scott-Knott. Foram necessárias amostras de trabalho de 1,29 g de cipselas para o teste de pureza. A espécie possui em média 1.545.104 cipselas.kg-1, diferindo entre árvores porta-sementes. As cipselas medem, em média, 0,62 mm de largura, 3,26 mm de comprimento e 0,58 mm de espessura, dimensões que diferem conforme a árvore porta-sementes. A germinação é de 5,64%, independentemente da árvore porta-sementes e da população. O tempo médio de germinação é de 25 dias, diferindo entre árvores porta-sementes. A emergência média de 5,28% independe de populações e árvores porta-sementes. O tempo médio de emergência é de 71 dias, que difere entre árvores porta-sementes.

Cold tolerance of inbred lines and sister line crosses of maize with different genetic backgrounds

An improvement in the early spring cold tolerance of maize would allow it to be grown in more northern areas with a cooler climate, while on traditional maize-growing areas the profitability of maize production could be improved by earlier sowing, leading to a reduction in transportation and drying costs. The cold tolerance of crosses between inbred lines and sister line crosses belonging to three related groups that combine well with each other (BSSS, Iodent, Lancaster) was tested in the Martonvásár phytotron. The results confirmed those of earlier experiments and led to the following new conclusions: - the average emergence time of the tested Iodent inbred lines was longer than that of the BSSS and Lancaster groups, - all three groups contained inbred lines with significantly earlier emergence than the others, - the average emergence percentage and individual shoot dry matter production in the Iodent group were also lower than in the other two groups, - a close negative correlation (r = -0.70) was found between the number of days to emergence and the individual dry shoot mass. The results were used to select inbred lines and sister line crosses with various genetic backgrounds that could be used in crosses aimed at improving the resistance of hybrids to cold stress in early spring.

Anaesthesia by intravenous emulsified isoflurane in mice.

An emulsion of isoflurane in Intralipid for intravenous (iv) injection was formulated and its anaesthetic properties determined in mice. The major advantage of iv delivery of volatile agents is to accelerate the induction of anaesthesia by circumventing the anesthetic circuitry and the lung's functional residual capacity. Isoflurane was added to Intralipid in varying concentrations. The ED50 (n = 34) and LD50 (n = 20) were determined by a single iv bolus injection. Anaesthesia was also induced and maintained for 30 min (n = 5) by continuous infusion and the time to emergence was measured. The ED50 and LD50 were 0.7 +/- 0.2 microliter and 2.4 +/- 0.2 microliter of isoflurane equivalent respectively. An average infusion rate of 1.6 +/- 0.4 microliters.min-1 of isoflurane equivalent was required for maintenance following which the average emergence time was 193 +/- 35 secs. The only negative effect was local skin ulceration with an inadvertent interstitial injection. We conclude that iv induction and maintenance with emulsified isoflurane in Intralipid can be carried out with safety and reproducibility in the mouse. Further larger animal studies are warranted assessing the haemodynamic, toxicological, physiochemical and pharmacokinetic characteristics of these and other similar preparations.

Interaction of Prechill and Chill Durations on Diapausing Prepupal Larvae of the Yellowheaded Spruce Sawfly (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae) and Associated Parasitoids

Prechill duration and chill duration have significant effects individually and interactively on diapause of the yellowheaded spruce sawfly, Pikonema alaskensis (Rohwer). Average time of emergence (weeks postchill) decreased with increased prechill (time between cocoon formation and chilling) and chill durations. Some treatments gave very low percentage of emergence. At 15°C, diapause development in the sawfly requires 23-24 wk. With short prechill durations (e.g., 3-6 wk) and chill durations of less than 12 wk, diapause development proceeded much slower at 0°C than at 15°C. However, with chill durations of 12 or more wk, diapause development was completed in much less than 23-24 wk (between 4 and 11 wk), at least for part of the population. Most of the rest of the population had their diapause developmental “clocks” reset to zero and spent an additional 23-24 wk in diapause development. A small percentage (about 1%) remained as prepupal larvae for over 70 wk. Percentage of emergence for three ichneumonid species increased with increased chill duration. The percentage of emergence of two ichneumonid species was affected by prechill duration, chill duration, and the prechill-chill interaction. The percentage of emergence of a tachinid parasitoid was unaffected by any treatment. Although times of emergence were unaffected by either prechill or chill duration for four species of ichneumonids, those for one ichneumonid and the tachinid decreased with increased prechill and chill durations.

Flight Patterns of Bats

The time of the evening emergence and return of Tadarida brasiliensis mexicana is correlated with light conditions. The average emergence time was 11 minutes after sunset. Emergence was earlier on cloudy evenings. A literature search revealed three annual emergence patterns in bats: (1) species without seasonal differences in emergence time in relation to sunset, (2) species which leave relatively later in the spring and fall and (3) species which emerge relatively earlier in the spring and fall. Feeding flights of Tadarida were either diffuse where there was little group integrity or serpentine where the bats flew in a column. Serpentine flights occurred earlier in relation to sunset than did diffuse. The average time away from the cave was 3 hours 48 minutes. Calculations based on measured flow rate and flight duration indicate that all bats in a large population cannot leave the cave each night.