Average Retail Price Research Articles

A Survey of Commercially Available Broilers Marketed as Organic, Free-Range, and Conventional Broilers for Cooked Meat Yields, Meat Composition, and Relative Value

The objective of this survey was to investigate qualitative and quantitative properties of meat from organic, free-range, and conventional broilers as currently provided to consumers. Fifteen broilers from 4 suppliers of each type were evaluated for raw meat yield, cooked meat yield, proximate composition, pH, color, lipid oxidation, fatty acid composition, and sensory attributes. Organic broilers yielded more dark (thigh) meat (P < 0.05) than free-range or conventional, when compared on a raw-meat basis, but conventional and free-range broilers yielded more (P < 0.05) cooked light (breast) meat than organic. Protein content of organic breast and thigh meat was greater (P < 0.05) than conventional in the raw and the cooked meat comparisons. The pH of breast meat from organic broilers was higher (P < 0.05) than free-range or conventional. Organic breast and thigh meat was less yellow (P < 0.05) than free-range or conventional. Fatty acid analysis showed that organic breasts and thighs were lower (P < 0.05) in saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids and higher (P < 0.05) in polyunsaturated fatty acids than free-range and conventional broilers. Shear force measurements were less (P < 0.05) for both breast and thigh meat from conventional broilers relative to free-range and organic broilers. Sensory panel results indicated that thighs from conventional broilers were more tender (P < 0.05) and less chewy (P < 0.05) than thighs from free-range and organic broilers, whereas other sensory properties did not differ. At the time of the study, March through May of 2006, the average retail prices for US broilers were $3.19, $2.78, and $1.29 per pound ($7.03, $6.13, and $2.84/kg) for organic, free-range, and conventional, respectively. Whereas a difference in the fatty acid composition was the largest difference observed between retail broilers in this survey, it is important to note that diets and production environments within the study were not controlled. It is apparent that the market prices for broilers at the time of this study are not fully reflected in the quantitative and qualitative measurements included in this study. It appears that consumers may be placing significant value on more intangible attributes associated with broilers marketed as organic and free-range chicken than on those attributes measured in this study.

Commercialization of &lt;i&gt;Ruspolia nitidula&lt;/i&gt; (nsenene grasshoppers) in Central Uganda

Trade in Ruspolia nitidula commonly known as grasshopper and locally known, as Nsenene is becoming a valuable source of income for many poor people in central Uganda, which although modest in terms of monetary value, could nonetheless form a significant proportion of their annual income. Though eaten by a large proportion of the population in the central Uganda, there is much less documented information on its commercialization and income potential. A study was, therefore, conducted to document consumers' perceptions about eating these R. nitidula; marketing chain, market locations, and the people trading in R. nitidula; the average price, income generated and the challenges and opportunities for marketing it in central Uganda. Two divisions (Central and Kawempe) of Kampala City and one sub-county (Nyendo-Ssenyange) of Masaka district with high concentration of R. nitidula business were surveyed. Seventy R. nitidula traders and 70 consumers were interviewed. Data were edited, coded, entered and analyzed using Statistical Packake for Social Sciences (SPSS). Results show that R. nitidula is a delicacy and cultural food eaten by the majority of the people in central Uganda. The average retail price per kilogram of R. nitidula was Uganda shillings 5,000 (&#8776; US $2.80), which compares favourably with that of goat meat, which retails at approximately Uganda shillings 4,000 (&#8776; US $2.13) per kilogram in Kampala districts. The trade was dominated by men and characterized by wholesalers who buy R. nitidula from collectors and sell to retailers. The average price per kilogram of R. nitidula increases from collectors to wholesale traders and to retailers. Collectors charged the lowest price although their profit margins remained the highest. Several barriers, such as high market dues, hamper the trade in R. nitidula. There is a need to streamline the trade in R. nitidula so as to protect traders from high taxation by the market administrators. The possibility of adding value to the R. nitidula should be investigated because it is mainly being sold in fresh form and yet it has a short shelf life. Keywords: Marketing, Trade, Ruspolia nitidula, Uganda. AJFAND Vol. 8 (3) 2008: pp. 319-332

Inter-Market and Seasonal Variation in Price: An Appraisal of Maize Marketing in Kwara State.

This study investigated inter-market and seasonal variation in prices of maize in Kwara State. Secondary time series data on average monthly retail price of maize in urban and rural markets between 1998 and 2003 were used for the study. Primary data on the average storage cost of maize and the average selling price of maize for 2004 were also used for the study. The study described the seasonal pattern of maize, examined its seasonal price rise and analyzed the inter-market variation in prices of maize in the study area. The study revealed that the seasonal price rise exceeds storage cost but the difference is minimal. The effect of kilometer separation between market- pairs on their Price difference is significant (p < 0.05). Thus, if storage cost should be reduced the inter-market price variation will be reduced while transportation cost should also be reduced to facilitate the movement of food commodities between markets. Keywords: Inter-market, Price difference, Seasonal, Variation, and Maize. Agrosearch Vol. 7 (1&2) 2005: pp. 51-61

A Retail Benchmarking Approach to Efficient Two-Way Access Pricing: Two-Part Tariffs

We study a retail benchmarking approach to determine access prices for interconnected networks. Instead of considering fixed access charges as in the existing literature, we study access pricing rules that determine the access price that network i pays to network j as a linear function of the marginal costs and the retail prices set by both networks. In the case of competition in two-part tariffs, we consider a class of access pricing rules, similar to the optimal one under competition in linear prices, derived by Jeon (2005), but based on average retail prices. We show that firms choose the variable price equal to the marginal cost under the class of rules. Therefore, the regulator can choose one among the rules to pursue additional objectives such as consumer surplus, network coverage or investment: in particular, we show that the regulator can achieve static and dynamic efficiency at the same time.

Pharmacoeconomic analysis of prostaglandin and prostamide therapy for patients with glaucoma or ocular hypertension.

BackgroundTo determine monthly cost and cost effectiveness of bilateral prostaglandin/prostamide therapy for lowering intraocular pressure (IOP) in patients taking bimatoprost 0.03% (Lumigan®, Allergan, Inc.), latanoprost 0.005% (Xalatan®, Pfizer, Inc.), or travoprost 0.004% (Travatan®, Alcon Laboratories, Inc.).MethodsDrops in five new 2.5-mL bottles were counted and then averaged for each drug. Average retail price was determined by surveys of pharmacies. Drop count, average retail price, average wholesale price, and IOP reduction data were used to compute annual cost, and cost effectiveness (annual cost-per-mm Hg of IOP reduction) of the three drugs.ResultsDrops per 2.5-mL bottle averaged 113 for bimatoprost 0.03%, 84 for latanoprost 0.005%, and 83 for travoprost 0.004%. Average retail cost (2005) per bottle was $69.99 for bimatoprost 0.03%, $61.69 for latanoprost 0.005%, and $66.37 for travoprost 0.004%. The monthly retail cost of bilateral therapy was $37.92 for bimatoprost 0.03%, $44.75 for latanoprost 0.005%, and $49.25 for travoprost 0.004%. Cost effectiveness ranges were $57 to $65 per mm Hg reduction in IOP per year for bimatoprost, 0.03%, $67 to $90 per mm Hg for latanoprost 0.005%, and $74 to $84 per mm Hg for travoprost 0.004%.ConclusionBimatoprost 0.03% had the lowest monthly and annual costs and the greatest cost effectiveness for lowering IOP compared with latanoprost 0.005% and travoprost 0.004%.

What Your Patients Need to Know About Psychiatric Medications

What Your Patients Need to Know About Psychiatric Medications

Retail prices of essential drugs in Brazil: an international comparison

Price is a key obstacle for consumer access to essential drugs, especially in developing countries. This study sought to compare the retail prices of essential drugs on the private market in Brazil with that of two international pricing standards. The retail price of all drugs on Brazil's Essential Drugs List, July 2000 edition, were compared to the retail price of the same drugs on the Swedish market and on a referential bulk-price indicator from low-cost suppliers on the international market. Ratios of Brazil's prices to Sweden's prices and Brazil's prices to the international bulk mean price-per-unit for each drug were calculated. Using linear regression analysis, the ratios were also studied in relation to the number of manufacturers. For the 132 drugs that were listed on both Brazil's and Sweden's lists, unitary retail prices in Brazil were 1.9 times higher. Of the 94 drugs found on both Brazil's list and the international unit-price indicator, Brazil's national mean unit prices were 13.1 more expensive. No relationship was found between the number of manufacturers for each product and the ratios of prices. Average retail prices of essential drugs in Brazil are significantly higher than in Sweden. Furthermore, international bulk prices indicate that drugs are brought to market by Brazil's private pharmacies at prices that may be excessively high in relation to production costs, creating high profit margins. The expected price-lowering effects of competition were not identified.

Determining Interest in Value-added Planters: Consumer Preference and Current Grower and Retailer Perceptions

Three intercept surveys were conducted at the Southeast Research and Extension Center in Landisville, Pa., at three separate field days during the period of 28 July to 4 Aug. 2004 to determine grower (n = 78), retailer/landscaper (n = 52), and consumer (n = 55) interest in annual planters. Survey participants were self-selected and asked to answer questions evaluating their preferences and past experience with annual planters. Consumer participants also evaluated planters based on flower-color harmony, container style, and price on a scale of 1 to 7 (1 = very unlikely to purchase, 7 = very likely to purchase) and answered sociographic and demographic questions. Container evaluations were analyzed using conjoint analysis to determine consumer preferences. Price was found to be the most important factor, accounting for 43.1% of the decision to purchase an annual planter. No significance was found comparing the lowest ($19.98) and middle ($29.98) prices; however, both were significantly more preferred than the highest price point ($39.98). Color harmony was the next most important factor, accounting for 34.9% of the decision to purchase followed by container style (22.0%). When asked what they would pay, on average, for the containers on display, consumer participants responded with a price of $25.68. A majority of retail/landscape participants in this study had never sold annual planters within their company (75.0%), whereas a majority of grower participants had produced annual planters in the past (75.0%). Retailer/landscape participants also indicated that they would charge their customers an average retail price of $31.67, which was 14% less than the growers’ suggested average retail price of $36.83 based on the $21.68 wholesale price they assigned.

A Retail Benchmarking Approach to Efficient Two-Way Access Pricing

We study a retail benchmarking approach to determine access prices for interconnected networks. Instead of considering fixed access charges as in the existing literature, we study access pricing rules that determine the access price that network i pays to network j as a linear function of the marginal costs and the retail prices set by both networks. In the case of competition in linear prices, we show that there is a unique linear rule that implements the Ramsey outcome as the unique equilibrium, independently of the underlying demand conditions. In the case of competition in two-part tariffs, we consider a class of access pricing rules, similar to the optimal one under linear prices but based on average retail prices. We show that firms choose the variable price equal to the marginal cost under this class of rules. Therefore, the regulator (or the competition authority) can choose one among the rules to pursue additional objectives such as consumer surplus, network coverage or investment: for instance, we show that both static and dynamic efficiency can be achieved at the same time.

Does Increasing the Market Share of Smaller Firms Result in Lower Prices? Empirical Evidence from the Canadian Retail Gasoline Industry

Some recent policy initiatives aimed at preserving the market share of smaller or independent gasoline retailers have either been implemented or proposed in both Canada and the United States. Employing monthly data on average retail prices and market shares across eleven Canadian cities between 1991 and 1997, I find that more aggregate market share in the hands of independent retailers is correlated with higher retail prices, but indirectly associated with lower prices through the corresponding fall in market concentration among vertically integrated firms. The sum of these impacts is negative as indirect effects are larger in magnitude than corresponding direct effects.

Selling a cheaper mousetrap: Wal-Mart's effect on retail prices

I quantify the price effect of a low-cost entrant on retail prices using a case-study approach. I consider the effect of Wal-Mart entry on average city-level prices of various consumer goods by exploiting variation in the timing of store entry. The analysis combines two unique data sets, one containing opening dates of all US Wal-Mart stores and the other containing average quarterly retail prices of several narrowly-defined commonly-purchased goods over the period 1982–2002. I focus on 10 specific items likely to be sold at Wal-Mart stores and analyze their price dynamics in 165 US cities before and after Wal-Mart entry. An instrumental-variables specification corrects for measurement error in Wal-Mart entry dates. I find robust price effects for several products, including shampoo, toothpaste, and laundry detergent; magnitudes vary by product and specification, but generally range from 1.5–3% in the short run to four times as much in the long run.

Cost considerations of the new fixed combinations for glaucoma medical therapy

To compare the costs of the new fixed combinations for glaucoma medical therapy. The studied drugs were: Cosopt (5-mL bottle), Combigan (5-mL bottle) and Xalacom (2.5-mL bottle). Five bottles of each drug were obtained from pharmacies, and the medications lot numbers were recorded. To calculate the drop volume, 10 drops and 1 mL of each bottle were weighed with a digital precision scale. Drop volume was calculated by the relation between volume and weight. The cost of each bottle of medication was determined from the average retail price in Canada. The prices were obtained in Canadian dollars (dollars). The drops of Cosopt (39.60 +/- 0.45 microL) were considerably larger than the drops of Combigan (33.75 +/- 0.60 microL) and Xalacom (30.87 +/- 0.37 microL). The average number of drops per millilitre varied from 25.25 +/- 0.29 (Cosopt) to 32.40 +/- 0.39 microL (Xalacom). Combigan presented the lowest daily cost (dollars 0.87 +/- 0.02) followed by Xalacom (dollars 1.09 +/- 0.01) and Cosopt (dollars 1.22 +/- 0.01). The average cost by year varied from dollars 316.75 +/- 5.59 (Combigan) to dollars 445.96 +/- 5.16 (Cosopt), with a total difference of dollars 129.21 per year of treatment. There was a statistically significant difference in average drop size and cost among the three studied drugs. Combigan presented the lowest daily cost followed by Xalacom and Cosopt.

Marketing Survey of Acid Lime and Hill Lemon in Nepal

A market survey was undertaken visiting 14 major markets of the country during 2001/03 to assess the marketing system, demand and supply situation and price behavior of acid lime and hill lemon in Nepal. Different levels of market intermediaries involved in lime and hill lemon marketing were selected for survey and group discussion. A standard semi structured interview schedule was used to gather the information and daily transaction of lime was recorded in Kalimati wholesale market for one year. The total annual consumption of lime at 14 major markets of Nepal was over 2327 mt. of which, 85% was consumed in Kathmandu only. The volume of sale was higher during main season of production in all markets except Nepalgunj, Bhairahawa and Krishnanagar, where the volume of sale was higher in off-season. Over 90 percent of total lime marketed in Nepal was imported from India. In Kalimati wholesale market, the domestic lime contributed only 5.5% to total supply in the season and the rest was supplied from India. However, the share of Nepalese lime in other 13 major markets, outside the Kathmandu valley, was 32%. The total volume of import was 2108 t. valued at Rs. 50.4 millions. In contrast to lime, lemon was not imported from India. The demand of lime was higher during off-season from January to August and lower during the main season of production, i.e. September to December. The wholesale and retail prices of lime and hill lemon showed temporal and spatial variation. The average wholesale price of two years (2001-2003) in Kalimati market was Rs. 1.2 to 2.6 and retail Rs. 1.5 to 3.05/fruit, whereas in 13 major markets the wholesale price varied from Rs. 0.64/fruit in September to Rs. 0.95 in April. Average retail price was the lowest in August (Rs. 1.4/fruit) and the highest in April (Rs. 1.93/fruit). Similarly, the average wholesale price of hill lemon varied from Rs. 1.6/fruit in October to Rs. 6.0/fruit in April and the average retail price was the lowest in October (Rs. 2.4/fruit) and the highest in April (Rs. 7.0/fruit). The prices of lime and hill lemon were the lowest during the season of production and the highest during off-season, i.e. summer months. Different types of traders as suppliers, wholesalers, retailers, doke, four-wheelers, collectors and commission agents were involved in the marketing of lime and hill lemon. There were four different channels involved in the marketing of lime and hill lemon. Shares of those channels in business varied with markets. The marketing through commission agent (6%) was not common, whereas the collectors were significant (57%) in marketing. The common uses of lime and hill lemon were as fresh green salad, juice and processed products such as juice, squash, chuk, and pickle. The post-harvest loss during marketing was up to 20 -25% due to poor management of fruits. Development of technology for the higher productivity, off-season production, post harvesting handling and processing of fruits, and strengthening market facilities including cold storage are suggested to reap the tremendous internal market opportunities and substitute the imports. &#x0D; &#x0D; Key words: Acid lime, hill lemon, marketing &#x0D; &#x0D; J. Inst. Agric. Anim. Sci. 26:107-116 (2005)

Formas de apresentação e embalagens de mandioquinha-salsa no varejo brasileiro

No varejo brasileiro, as raízes de mandioquinha-salsa são tradicionalmente comercializadas a granel e expostas em gôndolas abertas sem refrigeração, e os consumidores manipulam e selecionam o produto. O objetivo desse trabalho foi identificar e descrever as formas de apresentação da mandioquinha-salsa ofertadas no varejo através de visitas in situ a supermercados, sacolões e quitandas de São Paulo (SP) e Brasília (DF), entre 2001 e 2003, e também efetuar um estudo preliminar da percepção do consumidor em São Paulo. Foram identificados dez tipos de produtos de mandioquinha-salsa, três produzidos no sistema orgânico e sete no sistema convencional, em diferentes formas de apresentação, como raízes a granel, pré-embaladas, minimamente processadas e processadas. As duas formas mais importantes de venda da mandioquinha-salsa são raízes produzidas no sistema convencional comercializadas a granel ou embaladas em bandejas de isopor com PVC. As formas pré-embaladas (filme de PVC), minimamente processadas (raízes descascadas; cortadas em rodelas; raízes inteiras embaladas a vácuo) e processadas (cozida e embalada a vácuo) alcançaram preços mais altos, variando de R$ 4,16/kg (raízes descascadas) a R$ 8,60/kg (cortadas em rodelas). A mandioquinha-salsa orgânica apresentou preços médios mais altos em relação ao produto convencional, alcançando R$ 5,80/kg para raízes a granel; R$ 9,95/kg para raízes embaladas em PVC; e R$ 11,54/kg para raízes pré-cozidas embaladas a vácuo. As novas formas de apresentação da mandioquinha-salsa no varejo ainda têm pequena participação no mercado, mas possuem maior valor agregado e atendem demandas específicas do mercado consumidor.

Experts Predict Modest Savings From Discount Drug Program

Experts Predict Modest Savings From Discount Drug Program

Pricing Powdery-mildew-resistant Dogwoods: Simulated Impacts on the Nursery-industry Supply Chain

The University of Tennessee developed a flowering dogwood tree (Cornus florida) that is resistant to powdery mildew (Microspaera pulchra). A simulated cooperative game was created to estimate a university fee and predict the behavior of nursery growers and nursery product retailers. The simulation suggests a university fee of $3.51, leading to an average retail price premium for the resistant tree of $10.41. At this price level the simulation predicts that 62 percent of all retail dogwood trees sold would be powdery mildew resistant. Based on 1998 sales of 1.475 million dogwood trees nationwide, 914,500 were predicted to be the powdery mildew resistant varieties, resulting in $3.2 million in revenue for the university. Given this level of sales and markup pricing, the cost of the trees will rise in subsequent stages of the distribution channel, and revenues will increase as well. The simulation suggests nursery revenue will increase by nearly $4 million and costs by $3.2 million, resulting in a net nursery gain of $0.8 million. Similar computations for the retail level are $9.5 million in revenue and a net increase of $5.5 million.

Have Supermarket Mergers Raised Prices? An Event Study Analysis

Antitrust enforcement of supermarket merger activity during the late 1980s and early 1990s was less stringent than it had been before or has been since. For six announcements of supermarket acquisitions during this period, this study examines the abnormal stock returns of rival firms to determine if investors believed these acquisitions would lead to higher retail prices.These abnormal returns imply that investors expected that the average retail price change associated with these types of acquisitions ranges from a 0.12% decrease to a 0.05% increase. Thus, our results suggest that investors generally did not view these acquisitions as anticompetitive.

Absorbability and Cost Effectiveness in Calcium Supplementation

Background: Cost-effectiveness of calcium supplementation depends not only on the cost of the product but on the efficiency of its absorption. Published cost-benefit analyses assume equal bioavailability for all calcium sources. Some published studies have suggested that there are differences in both the bioavailability and cost of the major calcium supplements.Design: Randomized four period, three-way cross-over comparing single doses of off-the-shelf commercial calcium supplements containing either calcium carbonate or calcium citrate compared with a no-load blank and with encapsulated calcium carbonate devoid of other ingredients; subjects rendered fully vitamin D-replete with 10 μg/day 25(OH)D by mouth, starting one week prior to the first test.Subjects: 24 postmenopausal womenMethods: Pharmacokinetic analysis of the increment in serum total and ionized calcium and the decrement in serum iPTH induced by an oral calcium load, based upon multiple blood samples over a 24-hour period; measurement of the rise in urine calcium excretion. Data analyzed by repeated measures ANOVA. Cost calculations based on average retail prices of marketed products used in this study from April through October, 2000.Results: All three calcium sources (marketed calcium carbonate, encapsulated calcium carbonate and marketed calcium citrate) produced identical 24-hour time courses for the increment in total serum calcium. Thus, these were equally absorbed and had equivalent bioavailability. Urine calcium rose slightly more with the citrate than with the carbonate preparations, but the difference was not significant. Serum iPTH showed the expected depression accompanying the rise in serum calcium, and there were no significant differences between products.Conclusion: Given the equivalent bioavailability of the two marketed products, the cost benefit analysis favors the less expensive carbonate product.

Cost effectiveness of bisoprolol in the treatment of chronic congestive heart failure in Sweden: analysis using data from the Cardiac Insufficiency Bisoprolol Study II trial.

To investigate the cost effectiveness of adding the beta-blocker bisoprolol to standard treatment in patients with congestive heart failure (CHF). A cost-effectiveness study was based on the Cardiac Insufficiency Bisoprolol Study II (CIBIS-II), a randomised clinical trial investigating the efficacy of adding bisoprolol to standard therapy of CHF. The cost-effectiveness analysis was carried out from a societal perspective. Health effects were measured in terms of years of life gained. On the cost side, treatment costs for pharmaceuticals and hospitalisations were included. Data on healthcare resource consumption from CIBIS-II were used and were combined with average Swedish retail prices for medicines, and average costs for hospitalisations based on hospital admissions, in the base case. The costs of added years of life, i.e. consumption net of production during life-years gained were also included. If costs of added years of life were not included, then bisoprolol therapy increased life expectancy at an incremental cost of Swedish kronor (SEK) 13 094 (1999 values) per year of life gained. If costs of added years of life were included, then the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of bisoprolol therapy was SEK 168 858 per year of life gained. For patients with CHF with the characteristics of those in CIBIS-II, the cost effectiveness of bisoprolol therapy compares favourably with that of other cardiovascular therapies.

Comparison of cost, dosage and clinical preference for risperidone and olanzapine

Background: Because risperidone and olanzapine have similar efficacy and tolerability in the treatment of schizophrenia, costs, physician experience, and preference become relevant considerations in making treatment decisions. The purpose of this paper is to compare daily treatment costs of risperidone and olanzapine, and to examine psychiatrists' clinical preferences. Method: Dosage information was obtained from a national Ministry of Health registry and a national survey of psychiatrists. In addition, psychiatrists' clinical preference of antipsychotic medication and dosage for patient subtypes were examined by the national survey. Results: Data from the registry and national survey estimated the mean daily dose of risperidone to be one-third that of olanzapine, irrespective of patient subtype. Taking into account drug costs and dosage requirements, the average daily retail price was US $6.85 for risperidone and US $13.60 for olanzapine. Psychiatrists preferred risperidone for first-episode psychosis and elderly psychosis, and olanzapine for patients sensitive to EPS. They rated the drugs equally effective on positive and negative symptoms, for chronic patients, for treatment-refractory patients and relapse prevention. Conclusions: Risperidone has a substantial cost advantage over olanzapine, and was preferred by psychiatrists for more indications.