Average Peak Temperature Research Articles

Geochemical characteristics of Chang 91 source rocks of upper Triassic Yanchang formation in Zhidan-Ansai area, Ordos Basin and its significance for tight oil exploration

The average total organic carbon (TOC) content of Chang 91 source rocks is 4.85%, and the main kerogen type is II1, and the average pyrolysis peak temperature is 452 °C in Zhidan-Ansai area, Ordos Basin. These show that Chang 91 source rocks have reached good to excellent level and peak hydrocarbon generation stage. Chang 91 source rocks were formed in semi-deep lacustrine sedimentary environments of fresh-brackish water and weak oxidation-reduction. The discovery of Chang 91 source rock extends the oil exploration field of Yanchang Formation, especially in Zhidan area, it is a favorable area for further exploration in Chang 9 reservoir.

Control of room temperature fluctuations in the building by incorporating PCM in the roof

The energy demand for maintaining the required thermal comfort in the building is always an increasing trend. The use of an air conditioner in the building for providing thermal comfort consumes more energy, and it leads to negative environmental impacts. Thermal energy storage (TES) systems are essential to reduce energy consumption in the building. The phase change material (PCM)-based TES in the building has attracted attention in the recent years. In the PCM-based TES system, the heat energy gained during daytime is absorbed by the PCM and the stored energy is released during the night time. The objective of the work is to control the room temperature fluctuations by incorporating PCM in the building roof. The experiments are conducted in two identical model buildings: one is constructed with the implementation of PCM, and another one is constructed without the implementation of PCM in the building roof. It has been observed that the temperature fluctuations in the building are reduced by the use of PCM in the roof. The average peak temperature rise is reduced about 1–2 °C in the building with PCM incorporation in the roof, and thus, the energy required for maintaining the thermal comfort of the room is greatly reduced.

Predicting high-intensity focused ultrasound thalamotomy lesions using 2D magnetic resonance thermometry and 3D Gaussian modeling.

To develop a method of using two-dimensional (2D) magnetic resonance thermometry, and three-dimensional (3D) Gaussian modeling to predict the volume, shape, and location of 1day postoperative T1w high-intensity focused ultrasound lesions in medication refractory tremor patients; thereby facilitating a better comprehension of thermal damage thresholds, which can be utilized to reduce adverse events, and improve patient outcome. Fifteen patients underwent magnetic resonance-guided focused ultrasound (MRgFUS) thalamotomy, which was performed at our center using an InSightec ExAblate 4000 system (Haifa, Israel), and guided by magnetic resonance imaging using a 3T Discovery 750 (General Electric Healthcare, Waukesha, WI, USA). For treatment monitoring, 2D MR thermometry (temperature sensitivity: -0.00909ppm/°C, bandwidth: 279Hz/pixel) was performed in multiple orthogonal planes (sagittal, coronal, and axial) intraoperatively. These images were temporally filtered using a general linear model approach to reduce noise. Temporal volumes of filtered temperature maps with a peak temperature 47°C were aligned and fitted with a 3D Gaussian to create a canonical heating model. We then fitted the filtered 2D temperature maps with a 3D Gaussian, and used the relationships derived from the 3D heating model to estimate the 3D temperature distribution. These temperature distributions were converted into thermal dose distributions and accumulated across time to create an accumulated thermal dose (ATD) profile. Thresholded ATD profiles were then correlated with manually traced T1-weighted 1day postoperative lesion volumes across patients, and linear regression slopes were plotted against varying ATD thresholds. Additionally, the Dice-Sørensen coefficient (DSC) was calculated to quantify the volumetric overlap between predicted, and actual lesions. On average, 18.1 (standard deviation (SD): ±4.6, range: 10-29) sonications were performed with an average peak temperature achieved of 62.4°C (SD: ±2.4, range: 58.2-67.7). An ATD threshold of 35.8 CEM43 was found to give a unity linear regression slope; this corresponded to an average DSC of 0.689 (SD: ±0.090, range: 0.476-0.815). Using multiplanar 2D MR thermometry and 3D Gaussian modeling, we were able to achieve very good (DSC=0.689) predictions of T1w 1day postoperative lesion volume, shape and location at an ATD threshold of approximately 36 CEM43. Furthermore, this method has the potential to be used in clinical evaluations to further elucidate the relationship between thermal damage and clinical outcome. Accurate 3D lesion prediction will facilitate improved clinical decision making in future MRgFUS thalamotomies.

Experimental Investigation and Numerical Modeling of Room Temperature Control in Buildings by the Implementation of Phase Change Material in the Roof

Abstract Due to the increasing demand for air conditioners to maintain thermal comfort in buildings, it is necessary to search for alternatives that can reduce the soaring temperature and meet total air conditioning demands. There are several proven technologies for maintaining thermal comfort in buildings of which the use of phase change material (PCM) in buildings provides improved thermal comfort with fewer energy requirements. The present study analyzes the impact of the incorporation of PCM in roofs on the thermal behavior of buildings. The experiments were conducted in two identical model building roofs with and without the implementation of PCM. A numerical model was developed to find the effect of variation in the PCM layer thickness and month wise temperature variations. To get minimum variation in the results, the simulation was run continuously for 5 days assuming average climatic conditions. The results showed that temperature fluctuations in the room were reduced with the use of PCM, and also the average peak temperature rise was reduced by 2–4°C. The increased PCM layer thickness resulted in decreased energy demand for maintaining the required thermal comfort in buildings at an almost constant temperature.

Numerical investigation of a porous media combustor in a small-scale diesel engine

The application of porous media in compression ignition engines has significant effects on its combustion behavior. In this work, a Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) analysis of combustion in diesel engine is performed for 100% load, and the effects of porous media addition in the combustion chamber are quantified. With a porosity of 66.7%, silicon carbide is applied as porous media of cylindrical shape in the modified piston bowl in the conventional engine. The combustion analysis outputs include average cylinder-pressure, temperature; Nitrogen Oxides (NOX), mean mixture fraction, turbulent kinetic energy, total energy and modified Peclet number. The results of the CFD study for the cases of non-porous media are validated against the performed baseline experimental analysis, whereas porous media predictions are compared to the state-of-the-art studies available in the literature. In presence of porous media, the average peak pressure and temperature are found to drop by ∼26 bar and ∼550 K, respectively, as compared to that of non-porous media. Furthermore, NOX emissions are significantly reduced up to 97%. The generation of turbulent kinetic energy is enhanced by 86% for PM leading to an increment of ∼36% in the thermal energy conversion than without a porous media.

Field Analysis of three different Silicon-based Technologies in Composite Climatic Condition

This paper investigates the performance of the photovoltaics based on the filtering techniques, performance monitoring metrics, and numerical methodologies at real outdoor conditions. The experimental study is carried out on a set of nine photovoltaics modules consisting three modules of each technology i.e. Multi-crystalline (mc-si), Heterojunction with Intrinsic Thin layer (HIT) and Amorphous Silicon (a-si). Various electrical performance data has been collected and characterized for a period of three years in the composite climate of India. The research methodology includes mapping of series resistance, estimation of monthly average effective peak Power (Peff), Performance Ratio (PR) and temperature corrected Performance Ratio (PRT_CORR) has been carried out. The average percentage reduction in the effective peak power (ΔPeff) for the mc-si, a-si and HIT modules were 15.8%, 17.2%, and 7.1% respectively over a period of three years. The monthly average PR for mc-si, a-si and HIT modules were 0.70, 0.82 and 0.83 respectively for the same period. The PR T_CORR over three-year duration for mc-si is 0.77, for a-si is 0.89, and 0.90 for a HIT modules respectively. The annual degradation is 1.5%, 1.6% and 0.39% for mc-si, a-si and HIT modules respectively. The increment in the series resistance has been calculated estimated using the procedure I of the IEC 60,891 Edi 2.0 and the mapping of the series resistance has been done with the matrix of in-plane irradiance and module temperature. Further, the uncertainty calculations of series resistance have been estimated for three different irradiation ranges i.e. 1000 W/m2, 900 W/m2 and 800 W/m2 which is around 4% to ensure the sanctity of measurements and calculations. It has been observed that module degrades faster in hot climatic zones. The interpretation of measured and calculated results, correlation of bus-bar corrosion, and module degradation have been delineated for the composite climate. Finally, it also discusses the usage of the above-proposed methods/tools for optimization of solar cell design parameters at different climatic conditions.

Spot and diffuse mode of cathode attachments in a magnetically rotating arc plasma generator at atmospheric pressure

Adjusting the strength of an axial magnetic field is an effective method to control the cathode attachment. In this paper, a magnetically rotating arc plasma generator is constructed to study the cathode attachment modes under different magnetic fields. Two cathode attachment modes are observed: a spot mode and a diffuse mode. Images of cathode attachments, temperature distribution of the cathode surface, and arc voltage characteristics correlating to different cathode attachment modes are investigated. Results show that the spot mode is favored by the low magnetic field. With an increase in the magnetic field, the cathode attachment region expands gradually, until the spot mode evolutes to the diffuse mode. The diffuse mode is associated with a significantly increased arc voltage, indicating that the transition is an abrupt process rather than a gradual process. For the diffuse mode, the cathode end has a higher average and lower peak temperature, but there exists varying temperature distribution on the cathode end, such as the ring-shaped high temperature region. Additionally, a two-dimensional coupled model is applied to qualitatively discuss the effect of magnetic field on the cathode attachment modes. Simulation results reveal that energy flux to the cathode surface increases with the increase of the magnetic field, and the major increment is thermal conduction heating from the arc column to the cathode surface, which possibly arises from the axial compression of arc plasma. Thus, the diffuse mode tends to always operate in the large magnetic field.

OP29.03: Measurement of temperature during transvaginal scans

International guidelines suggest that a temperature increase of 4°C for more than 4 minutes can be dangerous for the fetus. For endocavitary examinations, self-heating of the probe plays a significant role, but this effect is not considered in calculating the thermal index. We measured the temperature rise at the probe surface during 23 transvaginal scans, to assess the thermal hazard in clinical practice and to sample data on scan duration and temperature increase for standard examinations. We monitored the temperature variations using 75μm fine wire K-type insulated thermocouples, mounted on the tip of the probe. The absence of artefacts due to the sensor was verified. 23 scans (16 for obstetrics and 7 for gynecology) were performed in the Obstetric Ultrasound department at a large maternity unit in London. Samsung WS80 + V5-9 and GE VolusonE8 + RIC5-9D were used. Colour flow mode was employed in approximately 70% of the scans. The average duration of the scans was 7 minutes 15 seconds (minimum 3, maximum 18 minutes. The majority of the scans last around 4 minutes. The average peak temperature was 36.3°C, minimum 34.1°C, maximum 38°C, with most of the scans showing a value around 37.5°C, with no significant difference between the machines. For 20 cases, the highest temperature was seen at the end of the ultrasound examination, however in some cases temperature peaks were observed, likely caused by mode change a variation of the operating parameters. Supporting information can be found in the online version of this abstract Please note: The publisher is not responsible for the content or functionality of any supporting information supplied by the authors. Any queries (other than missing content) should be directed to the corresponding author for the article.

Thermal evaluation of GaN-based HEMTs with various layer sizes and structural parameters using finite-element thermal simulation

By using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and infrared data, we established and verified a two-dimensional finite-element model conforming to the size of the practical device to study high-electron-mobility transistors (HEMTs). Because the resolution of the infrared measurement was 7μm, we verified the correctness of the model by comparing the 7-μm average peak temperature with the measured infrared data at various platform temperatures. The simulated average peak temperature agrees well with the infrared data. To further investigate the thermal performance of GaN-based HEMTs with various layer sizes and structural parameters, we simulated devices with various values of gate length, gate spacing, GaN layer thickness, substrate breadth, and substrate thickness. The conclusions presented result from some factors that must be taken into account to manage thermal issues in devices.

Passive and active cooling for the outdoor built environment – Analysis and assessment of the cooling potential of mitigation technologies using performance data from 220 large scale projects

Local and global climate change increases the ambient temperature of cities by several degrees with important consequences on energy consumption, health and the economy. Advanced urban mitigation technologies contribute to decrease the ambient temperature and counterbalance the impact of urban heat islands. The present paper analyses and presents in a comparative way the mitigation potential of the known mitigation technologies using performance data from about 220 real scale urban rehabilitation projects. The average and peak temperature drop of reflective technologies, greenery, evaporative systems, earth to air heat exchangers and their combinations is calculated and presented. The mitigation potential of the main systems like cool roofs, cool pavements, green roofs, urban trees, pools and ponds, sprinklers, fountains, and evaporative towers, is analysed. It is found that the potential of the main mitigation technologies is considerable and can counterbalance UHI effects partly or fully. The average peak temperature drop calculated for all projects is close to 2K, while the corresponding decrease of the average ambient temperature is close to 0.74K. Almost 31% of the analysed projects resulted in a peak temperature drop below 1K, 62% below 2K, 82% below 3K and 90% below 4K.

Workload Change Point Detection for Runtime Thermal Management of Embedded Systems

Applications executed on multicore embedded systems interact with system software [such as the operating system (OS)] and hardware, leading to widely varying thermal profiles which accelerate some aging mechanisms, reducing the lifetime reliability. Effectively managing the temperature therefore requires: 1) autonomous detection of changes in application workload and 2) appropriate selection of control levers to manage thermal profiles of these workloads. In this paper, we propose a technique for workload change detection using density ratio-based statistical divergence between overlapping sliding windows of CPU performance statistics. This is integrated in a runtime approach for thermal management, which uses reinforcement learning to select workload-specific thermal control levers by sampling on-board thermal sensors. Identified control levers override the OSs native thread allocation decision and scale hardware voltage–frequency to improve average temperature, peak temperature, and thermal cycling. The proposed approach is validated through its implementation as a hierarchical runtime manager for Linux, with heuristic-based thread affinity selected from the upper hierarchy to reduce thermal cycling and learning-based voltage–frequency selected from the lower hierarchy to reduce average and peak temperatures. Experiments conducted with mobile, embedded, and high performance applications on ARM-based embedded systems demonstrate that the proposed approach increases workload change detection accuracy by an average ${3.4\times }$ , reducing the average temperature by 4 °C–25 °C, peak temperature by 6 °C–24 °C, and thermal cycling by 7%–35% over state-of-the-art approaches.

Multi-zone phenomenological combustion modeling of biodiesel fueled compression ignition engine

The renewable biodiesel fuel is considered as one of the most promising alternative fuels to compression ignition engines. As there are more than 350 oil-bearing crops with wide variation in their compositional characteristics, it is indispensable to study the combustion characteristics of biodiesel fuels to adopt them as alternative fuels for diesel engines. This article presents a multi-zone phenomenological model for predicting the combustion characteristics of non-edible karanja and jatropha biodiesel fuels in a compression ignition engine. The various thermo-physical properties of the biodiesel fuels needed for the combustion modeling are evaluated based on their methyl ester composition. The model predictions in terms of combustion characteristics of diesel and biodiesel fuels are validated with the experimental results at different engine speed and load conditions. The model predictions are observed to match well with the experimental values within the maximum prediction error of 8.6%. A comparative analysis of combustion characteristics between diesel and biodiesel fuel is also pursued. It is predicted that the peak pressure and spray average peak temperature of karanja and jatropha biodiesel are higher compared to those of diesel fuel which corroborate with the several observations reported in the literature.

Temperatures of Spark Kernels Discharging into Quiescent or Crossflow Conditions

This work determines how the temperature of spark kernels changes for quiescent and crossflow conditions. Previous efforts have primarily considered kernels in quiescent conditions and typically neglected how the temperature changes with time. The latter is significant because the temperature evolution is critical for determining if reactions become self-sustaining. Kernels were generated using a gas turbine engine igniter. Temperatures were determined from radiation intensity measurements (FLIR SC6700) and by solving the radiation transfer equation. Kernels were discharged into a wind tunnel with crossflow velocities between 0 and . Kernels developed into toroidal vortices for all conditions. The average peak temperature in quiescent conditions was near 950 K and nearly 1250 K at the highest crossflow velocity. Higher temperatures were observed at the upstream side of kernels when ejecting into a crossflow. The changes in temperatures observed with crossflow are explained by fluid mechanic literature; vortex crossflow interaction alters entrainment into kernels. The sensible energy of kernels, determined from the temperatures, decreased roughly linearly with time for all flow conditions. The highest crossflow velocity had the lowest sensible energy as a result of reduced apparent volume of the kernel. The trajectory of kernels in a crossflow matches that from pulsed jet literature.

Adaptive and Hierarchical Runtime Manager for Energy-Aware Thermal Management of Embedded Systems

Modern embedded systems execute applications, which interact with the operating system and hardware differently depending on the type of workload. These cross-layer interactions result in wide variations of the chip-wide thermal profile. In this article, a reinforcement learning-based runtime manager is proposed that guarantees application-specific performance requirements and controls the POSIX thread allocation and voltage/frequency scaling for energy-efficient thermal management. This controls three thermal aspects: peak temperature, average temperature, and thermal cycling. Contrary to existing learning-based runtime approaches that optimize energy and temperature individually, the proposed runtime manager is the first approach to combine the two objectives, simultaneously addressing all three thermal aspects. However, determining thread allocation and core frequencies to optimize energy and temperature is an NP-hard problem. This leads to exponential growth in the learning table (significant memory overhead) and a corresponding increase in the exploration time to learn the most appropriate thread allocation and core frequency for a particular application workload. To confine the learning space and to minimize the learning cost, the proposed runtime manager is implemented in a two-stage hierarchy: a heuristic-based thread allocation at a longer time interval to improve thermal cycling, followed by a learning-based hardware frequency selection at a much finer interval to improve average temperature, peak temperature, and energy consumption. This enables finer control on temperature in an energy-efficient manner while simultaneously addressing scalability, which is a crucial aspect for multi-/many-core embedded systems. The proposed hierarchical runtime manager is implemented for Linux running on nVidia’s Tegra SoC, featuring four ARM Cortex-A15 cores. Experiments conducted with a range of embedded and cpu-intensive applications demonstrate that the proposed runtime manager not only reduces energy consumption by an average 15% with respect to Linux but also improves all the thermal aspects—average temperature by 14°C, peak temperature by 16°C, and thermal cycling by 54%.

Comparison of Conventional Mercury Thermometer and Continuous TherCom® Temperature Recording in Hospitalized Patients.

Detection of accurate body temperature fluctu-ations in hospitalized patients is crucial for appropriate clinical decision-making. The accuracy and reliability of body temperature assessment may significantly affect the proper treatment. To compare the conventional and continuous body temperature recordings in hospitalized patients. This cross-sectional study was carried out at a tertiary care centre and study included 55 patients aged between 18-65 years with a history of fever admitted to a tertiary care hospital. A noninvasive continuous temperature recording was done using TherCom® device through tympanic temperature probe at tympanic site at one-minute intervals for 24 hours. The conventional temperatures were recorded in the axilla using mercury thermometer at specific time intervals at 12:00 noon, 8:00 PM and 5:00 AM. Peak temperature differences between continuous and conventional methods were compared by applying Independent sample t-test. Intra class Correlation Coefficient (ICC) test was performed to assess the reliability between two temperature-monitoring methods. A p<0.05 was considered as significant. The average peak temperature by non-invasive continuous recording method was 39.07°C ±0.76°C while it was 37.55°C ±0.62°C by the conventional method. A significant temperature difference of 1.52°C [p<0.001;95% CI(1.26-1.78)] was observed between continuous and conventional temperature methods. Intra class Correlation Coefficient (ICC) between continuous and conventional temperature readings at 12:00 noon was α= 0.540, which had moderate reliability. The corresponding coefficients at 8:00 PM and 5:00 AM were α=0.425 and 0.435, respectively, which had poor reliability. The conventional recording of temperature is routinely practiced and does not reflect the true temperature fluctuations. However, the continuous non-invasive temperature recording is simple, inexpensive and a better tool for recording the actual temperature changes.

Transformation of main surgical hole during laparoscopic exploration of common bile duct

During June 2012 to October 2014, a total of 48 patients with stones in common bile duct diagnosed by ultrasound and magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography (MRCP) were randomly divided into two groups (n=24 each). The general group underwent conventional common bile duct exploration by laparoscopy (LCHTD) at left side. For improvement group, the operator timely transfered from left side to right side during laparoscopy. And two auxiliary holes of right side were used for suturing common bile duct. All patients successfully completed common bile duct exploration by laparoscopy. The suturing times of common bile duct were (13.6±2.5) & (7.6±2.7) min (t=11.365, P=0.000), intraoperative bleeding volume (77.52±12.49) & (74.91±13.66) ml (t=2.627, P=0.008), average peak temperature at day 3 post-operation (38.6±0.5) & (37.4±0.5) ℃ (t=9.954, P=0.000) and average postoperative hospitalization length (9.2±3.4) & (7.1±2.1) days (t=8.730, P=0.000). Compared with general group, the suturing time of common bile duct was significantly shorter in improvement group, the average highest temperature at day 3 post-operation were lower and complications (bile leakage, bile duct stricture & biliary tract bleeding) decreased significantly. The main hole conversion during common bile duct exploration by laparoscopy offers the advantages of flexibility, convenience and applicability. Key words: Choledocholithiasis; Laparoscopy

Numerical Simulation of Heavy Crude Oil Combustion in Porous Combustion Tube

This work presents a compositional numerical model to simulate the combustion of heavy crude oil in a porous combustion tube. The combustion tube experiments replicate an enhanced oil recovery process by in-situ combustion (ISC) of crude oil in a petroleum reservoir. Due to the economic constrains associated with the combustion tube tests, numerical simulation has been identified as an efficient and economical tool in understanding the complex ISC process. In the present model, mass and energy conservations have been drawn considering an advective, diffusive, and reactive flow of multiple components in multi-phase. The model includes temperature- and pressure-dependent fluid properties and considers the effect of capillary pressure. A block-centered finite-difference-based numerical tool with an implicit quasi-Newton iterative solver scheme has been developed to solve the conservation equations. The numerical model is validated with the combustion-tube results reported by Fadaei et al. (2011). The combustion front profile predicted by the present numerical model has been found to be in good agreement with the reported results. The numerical results projected a cumulative oil recovery of about 60% of original oil in place. The combustion front has been found to propagate with an average peak temperature of 715 K.

Effects of Air Inlet Configuration on Forced-Ventilation Enclosure Fires on a Naval Ship

The effects of air inlet configuration on pool fire behavior in a mechanically ventilated cabin were investigated. The closed cabin used was a model of a certain machinery cabin on a naval ship. Two air inlet configurations of one vent and two vents were taken into account together with five different elevations of air inlet. In one-vent cases, mass loss rate and gas temperature were lower and oxygen concentrations were higher than those of two-vent cases. With the increase of air inlet elevation, a sudden drop in average mass loss rate and peak temperature were found in the two-vent cases at the air inlet elevation of 1.56 m. In one-vent cases, a similar drop in average mass loss rate was found at the air inlet elevation of 0.88 m, while the peak temperature was almost unaffected by inlet elevation. According to temperature profiles and the characteristic parameter of the smoke layer stability, the formation of the smoke layer was destroyed by increasing the air inlet elevation or reducing the air inlets, and furthermore a more uniform distribution could be found. For the current cabin, the one-vent case with a lower air inlet elevation was recommended for smoke control, and the inlet should be set away from the essential equipment and the entrances of the cabin.

Application of temperature-programmed oxidation (TPO) in studying the mechanism of deposits formation from the degradation of lubricants on metal surfaces

Temperature-programmed oxidation (TPO) was used to investigate the mechanism of lubricant-derived deposit formation on metal surfaces. The relationship between the crystalline structures of different carbonaceous specimens, along with their chemical reactivity, was used to distinguish between more reactive and less reactive lubricant deposits. Multiple CO2 peaks obtained were attributed to differences in the oxidation reactivity of the deposits with respect to their structural characteristics. Findings from this work suggest that as deposits evolve, they become more complex (varied) due to loss of O and H atoms during a carbonisation-type process. As these deposits undergo visible changes over time (lacquer deposit transforming into dark carbon), the average peak temperature (weighted average oxidation temperature) monotonically increases. Characterisations of lubricant deposits by TPO indicate that the global change in carbonaceous structure proceeds across the deposits in a uniform layer deposition model. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Volumetric scale-up of smouldering remediation of contaminated materials

Smouldering remediation is a process that has been introduced recently to address non-aqueous phase liquid (NAPL) contamination in soils and other porous media. Previous work demonstrated this process to be highly effective across a wide range of contaminants and soil conditions at the bench scale. In this work, a suite of 12 experiments explored the effectiveness of the process as operating scale was increased 1000-fold from the bench (0.003m3) to intermediate (0.3m3) and pilot field-scale (3m3) with coal tar and petrochemical NAPLs. As scale increased, remediation efficiency of 97–99.95% was maintained. Smouldering propagation velocities of 0.6–14×10−5m/s at Darcy air fluxes of 1.54–9.15cm/s were consistent with observations in previous bench studies, as was the dependence on air flux. The pilot field-scale experiments demonstrated the robustness of the process despite heterogeneities, localised operation, controllability through airflow supply, and the importance of a minimum air flux for self-sustainability. Experiments at the intermediate scale established a minimum-observed, not minimum-possible, initial concentration of 12,000mg/kg in mixed oil waste, providing support for the expectation that lower thresholds for self-sustaining smouldering decreased with increasing scale. Once the threshold was exceeded, basic process characteristics of average peak temperature, destructive efficiency, and treatment velocity were relatively independent of scale.