Average Effective Tax Rates Research Articles

Coordination vs. Competitiveness of Effective Average Tax Rates in Relation to FDI: The Case of Emerging EU Economies

Due to the single market within the European Union (EU), capital mobility has created many challenges in the field of tax policy, especially whether taxes should be coordinated or governments should retain fiscal sovereignty for the sake of tax competitiveness. In order to attract foreign direct investment (FDI), emerging EU economies most often choose the policy of tax reduction and particularly lowering the effective average tax rates (EATR). The purpose of this paper is to empirically assess the impact of changes in the EATR on the decision to localize FDI in emerging EU economies in the period 1998–2021, in the framework of cross-sectional dependent, non-stationary, heterogeneous panels. Using the (Pooled) Mean Group estimator, the long-run relationship between the EATR and the FDI is revealed. The error-correction parameters are significant and heterogeneous, showing that the speed of adjustments towards equilibrium is different, but the highest in Estonia. Accession to the EU contributed faster adjustments to the long-run relationship in the majority of the emerging EU economies, while a broader set of potential determinants of FDI localization is taken into consideration and estimated using the Panel-corrected standard error method. Results showed de facto tax competitiveness in the group of emerging EU economies, instead of de jure tax coordination in the EU.

Macroeconomic and distributive effects of increasing taxes in Spain

I assess the macroeconomic and redistributive effects of tax reforms aimed at increasing tax revenue in Spain. To this end, I develop a theory of entrepreneurship that mimics key facts on the wealth and income distribution in Spain. I find two reforms that raise fiscal pressure in Spain to the average value among countries in the Euro area. The first reform involves doubling the average effective tax rate on labor and business income for all individuals whose income is above a threshold level. I find that this reform reduces the inequality in after-tax income, wealth, and consumption. However, it implies a substantial GDP reduction. The second reform increases the flat tax rate on consumption by fifteen percentage points. While this reform does not reduce long-run output, it does not decrease household inequality. All in all, the desirability of the two reforms depends on the government’s preferences for reducing inequality at the expense of aggregate output losses.

An Effective Average Tax Rate as the Deciding Factor in Tax Competitiveness in the Context of Foreign Investment Influx

A higher tax burden in individual countries need not always deter investors from investing profitably. Countries use tax burden levels in the form of changes in tax rates to attract foreign investment. The main objective of this study is to examine the tax competitiveness of the Slovak Republic compared to European Union (EU) countries (EU-27) and to evaluate the origin, extent, and form of investments from foreign investors in tangible and intangible assets in the Slovak Republic. To meet this objective, we first calculate the average tax rate for specific crossborder investments coming to Slovakia from all EU countries. To determine tax competitiveness, we compare the calculated effective average tax rate (EATR) with the EATR in individual EU countries. Finally, we perform an analysis of EATR and foreign direct investment (FDI) using cluster analysis, which categorises EU countries and evaluates their tax competitiveness. The analysis and comparison of values are conducted for the year 2019, while the countries are divided into old (EU-15) and new (EU-12) EU member countries. The article concludes that the calculated Slovak EART for cross-border investment is more profitable for old EU member countries and is, thus, more tax-competitive versus investors’ countries of origin. We can further state that the tax burden is among the most important indicators for investors and, thus, a lower EATR value than that in an investor’s country of origin contributes to the inflow of equity participation of FDI in Slovakia.

Analisis Profitabilitas Dan Leverage Dalam Menilai Tax Avoidance Pada PT. Indofood Suskes Makmur Tbk Periode 2016 - 2020

This study aims to determine how profitability and leverage in assessing tax avoidance. The object of this research is PT. Indofood Sukses Makmur Tbk taken from the financial statements of 5 (five) years in the period 2016 - 2020. The calculation results show that the average Return On Assets for 5 (five) years in the period 2016 - 2020 is 5.78% per year as a whole categorized as good. And for the average Debt to Equity Ratio for 5 (five) years in the 2016 - 2020 period, which is 90% per year. And for the average Cash Effective Tax Rate for 5 (five) years in the 2016 - 2020 period, which is 34.29% per year, overall it is categorized as very good, when viewed from the industry standard, which is above 25%. Furthermore, according to the calculation that profitability and leverage in assessing tax avoidance for 5 (five) years in the 2016 - 2020 period, the result is a contribution of 6.01% and others are influenced by other factors that are not discussed and examined in this study.

R&D Tax Incentive Regimes – A Comparison and Evaluation of Current Country Practices

This article evaluates qualitatively and quantitatively the current R&D tax incentive regimes in place in ten important foreign direct investment (FDI) countries (Belgium, China, France, Germany, Ireland, the Netherlands, Spain, Switzerland, the United Kingdom and the United States) considering effects on location attractiveness, innovative activity and profit shifting. The environment of offered R&D tax incentives has been highly dynamic in very recent years. Furthermore, the importance of innovative activities is accentuated during an economic crisis. First, the authors qualitatively analyse the different design features of the existing R&D tax incentives in their sample countries. Second, the authors use forward-looking effective average tax rates to measure their effect on location attractiveness quantitatively. The authors’ main finding is that input and output-oriented R&D tax incentives continue to play an important role internationally and that the regimes in place have a considerable impact on forward-looking effective average tax rates, i.e., on countries’ tax attractiveness for R&D investments.

Evaluating Japan's corporate income tax reform using firm-specific effective tax rates

This study evaluates Japan's corporate tax reforms in the 2010 s by estimating the effective average tax rate (EATR) and effective marginal tax rate (EMTR), common methods for international comparisons, using data on Japanese firms. Japan lowered its statutory tax rate while it expanded the tax base. This study analyzes the differing effects of the tax rate reduction and depreciation method reform by conducting simulations to represent the effects of each reform on the EATR and EMTR. Japan's tax reform in the 2010 s reduced both EATR and EMTR by lowering tax rates. The reform of depreciation methods had little effect on EATR and raised EMTR, but had a limited effect on companies with eligible depreciable assets. The overall effect of the corporate income tax reform is that the effect of the tax rate reduction exceeded that of the depreciation method reforms, and thus the EMTR also declined.

Prosečna efektivnost poreza na dobit na primeru kompanija na listingu Beogradske berze

The fiscal policy of a country is a crucial source of successful and normal functioning of that country's economy. The implications of fiscal policy can be reflected in both the private and the functioning of the public sector of a country's economy. Public finance is an area of economics dealing with the analysis of tax policy and government spending policy. One of the important areas of public finance research is corporate income tax. Corporate income tax is a direct tax imposed at the national level for the purpose of taxing the profits of certain companies, whether state-owned or privately owned. The aim of this paper is to look at the actual amount of profit tax paid, i.e. by observing the profit before taxation of companies listed on the Belgrade Stock Exchange. The paper considers the effective tax rate of companies and points out the deviation of the same from the legally prescribed corporate income tax rate in the Republic of Serbia and the implications of corporate income tax on the company's business results. The paper presents graphical and tabular representations of the effective tax rates of each company as well as the average effective tax rate of companies listed on the Belgrade Stock Exchange in relation to the law in the period from 2013 to 2020 in the Republic of Serbia. Finally, a statistical analysis of the presented results is given in order to understand more precisely the deviation of the effectiveness of corporate income tax of companies listed on the Belgrade Stock Exchange as well as the analysis of the correlation between the growth of the average pre-tax profit and the growth of the average effective corporate income tax rate.

The tax burden on mobile network operators in Africa

We estimate the tax burden on the mobile telecommunication sector in twenty-five African countries. This tax burden encompasses not only standard and special taxes under the control of the Ministry of Finance (MoF) but also fees raised by the national telecommunication Regulatory Agency (RA). Given the lack of financial data at the country level, we build a representative mobile network operator named TELCO, using the GSMA Intelligence database. We compute the Average Effective Tax Rate (AETR) for this firm considering general and special taxes and fees levied only on the telecommunication sector. We develop a web application (https://data.cerdi.uca.fr/telecom/), allowing the reader to replicate our analysis or modify TELCO and tax parameters. The AETR varies significantly across countries, ranging from 33 percent in Ethiopia to 118 percent in Niger. Special taxes and fees represent a large share of the AETR, illustrating some taxation by regulation and a potential tax competition (a race to the top) between the MoF and the RA. We compare TELCO's AETR with that of a representative gold mining plant and a standard company with a similar gross return. The tax burden of the telecommunications sector is higher than that of the mining sector in 15 of the 19 countries for which we have data on the gold mining sector.

Determinants of Bank M&As in Central and Eastern Europe

This paper analyzes the determinants of bank mergers and acquisitions (M&As) from a bank-level perspective. The main objective of the study is to identify those mutual characteristics of all banking institutions from Central and Eastern Europe that are prone to be acquired versus acquirer, or national versus cross-border. Using a database of more than 200 M&As transactions between 2000 and 2018 within Central and Eastern Europe, we document the main characteristics that influence the decision of merging, including the size of the bank, profitability, lending activities, liquidity, bank concentration, banking system stability, government effectiveness, regulatory quality, and the level of inflation. Higher effective average tax rate, which is associated with reduced tax avoidance, influences banks in a positive manner to be involved in the M&A process, findings that hold for targeted banks and domestic transactions. Furthermore, the analysis highlights the changes the financial crisis has projected on investors’ behavior.

A real options based framework for assessing the international attractiveness of mining taxation regimes

In today's globalized world, mining capital is highly mobile. Therefore, countries are in a pressing need to design competitive mining tax codes to attract this capital. A country that has a higher tax rate drives mining investment elsewhere. When this happens, mineral deposits will never be discovered and mines will never be opened. In this paper, a real options based framework for assessing the international attractiveness of mining taxation regimes was developed. The framework integrates three financial metrics, namely, the average effective tax rate, marginal effective tax rate, and the real option to abandon. To illustrate its practical application, the framework was applied to assess the international attractiveness of Zambia's copper taxation regime. The assessment was based on two fiscal instruments, namely, mineral royalty and corporate income tax. Additionally, copper taxation regimes of four countries in the Southern African Development Community (SADC) and three countries outside the borders of Africa were selected for the analysis. These countries are Australia, Chile, Peru, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Angola, South Africa, and Botswana. It was drawn from the results that Zambia's copper taxation regime yielding an index of 0.65 was the least attractive.

Tax Rates and Tax Revenues in the Context of Tax Competitiveness

The diverse tax burdens and economic situations of EU member states are causing investors to relocate their investments to countries that offer better tax conditions and a better economic environment. The total amount of corporate tax revenue is therefore influenced by tax, macroeconomic and other indicators. This paper assesses the importance of tax revenues and tax rates in the context of tax competitiveness in EU states. The aim of the paper is to determine the impact of selected indicators on corporate tax revenues in EU states for the period 2004 to 2019. The source data were drawn from the databases of the European Commission (2021) and The World Bank (2021). The set goal was complemented by an analysis of tax rates and subsequent comparison with corporate tax revenues. Multiple regression analysis was performed to achieve the goal. Two econometric models were compiled that followed the same variables, with the EU13 model dealing with the new member states and the EU15 model dealing with the old EU member states. The results showed that the variables statutory and average effective tax rate do not have a decisive influence on corporate tax revenues in either model. In the new states, the unemployment rate has the most statistically significant effect, while in the old countries GDP has the biggest effect. The result of this work is that there are differences between the new and old member states at different levels, which was ultimately reflected in the different impact of tax and macroeconomic indicators on corporate tax revenues.

Income tax on PGBL and VGBL pension plans: Analysis of progressive and regressive forms of taxation

Purpose – The study investigates incentives in two types of private pension plans in Brazil: PGBL and VGBL. It identifies which one to choose to minimize income tax, considering both progressive and regressive forms of taxation. Theoretical framework – Based on Sutcliffe (2016), the individual decision-making process depends on the taxonomy of tax incentives (Disney & Whitehouse, 1999) and economic effects (Barr & Diamond, 2009; Armstrong, Davis, & Ebell, 2015). Design/methodology/approach – This study used an innovative approach, calculating the actuarial present value gross and net of tax for nominal cash flows, applied to the objective function that minimizes the average effective income tax rate – according to the definition by Fullerton (1984). A simulator was created for the optimal decision of representative individuals regarding the form of taxation to choose, thus reducing the amount of tax payable. Research Practical & Social implications – We advise those with PGBL and VGBL pension plans on the best decision regarding forms of taxation, thus contributing to an improvement in tax legislation. Originality/value – The study’s main contribution lies in calculating actuarial annuity gross and net of income tax, impacted by inflation over time, in addition to calculating traditional variables such as real interest rate, taxable income, deductible expenses, age, sex, and the life table. Keywords – private pension plans, PGBL, VGBL, tax relief, income tax.

Assessing the impact of Botswana's fiscal regime on the Karowe Mine

Lucara Diamond Corporation's Karowe Mine was commissioned in mid-2012 and it has since turned out to be a very profitable operation with a nominal internal rate of return (IRR) of 58%. We extracted information from Karowe Mine's annual financial statements and constructed a financial model to evaluate the average effective tax rate (AETR) that was realized up until December 2019. We then assessed whether the variable rate income tax formula, which was intended for less profitable base metal mines, was effective in taxing the mineral resource rent from Karowe Mine. Finally, we ran scenarios for government participation in order to test what the effective rate would have been had the Government of Botswana acquired up to 50% paid equity. We find that the AETR for Karowe Mine is 71.9%, which exceeds the recommended range of 40% to 60% for non-diamond mines but falls slightly short for the case of large scale diamond mines as a 50% paid equity results in an AETR to 79.2%. We conclude that the current variable rate income tax formula fails to capture the mineral rent in profitable diamond mining projects based on the robust project economics and therefore should be used only for the purpose it was originally intended.

Investigating the impact of country-by-country reporting on effective tax rates: Exploratory evidence from listed South African multinational groups

Background: Following the global initiative to curb base erosion and profit shifting, South Africa introduced Country-by-Country (CbC) reporting standards for South African multinational groups with an effective date of 1 January 2016. Aim: The study aims to develop and analyse indicators to investigate the impact of CbC reporting on the effective tax rate of South African multinational groups. Setting: The research focused on a selection of Johannesburg Stock Exchange (JSE)-listed companies, using financial data retrieved from the IRESS Expert database. Methods:Descriptive analyses were conducted on five developed measurable indicators. These indicators comprise the analysis of the average ETR of multinational groups through various approaches. Results: A comparison of the average consolidated effective tax rate (ETR) between multinational and non-multinational groups found a higher ETR for the multinational groups. The average consolidated ETR of multinational groups with a filing obligation was significantly higher than the average consolidated ETR of multinational groups without such an obligation. A comparison was conducted on the average consolidated ETR of multinational groups with a filing obligation between two stages, namely pre- and post-CbC reporting implementation. The results of this comparison revealed a highly significant increase in the average consolidated ETR of multinational groups post-CbC implementation as opposed to the ETR pre-implementation. No significant difference was found between the average consolidated ETR of multinational groups with at least one affiliate in a tax haven, as compared to those without. A comparison of the average foreign unconsolidated ETR found a significantly lower average foreign ETR for multinational groups than the consolidated overall ETR of multinational groups. In line with the study’s earlier result, namely a higher consolidated ETR for multinational groups with a filing obligation compared to their counterparts with no filing obligation, the foreign ETR of multinational groups with a CbC filing obligation was found to be significantly higher than the foreign ETR of those without a filing obligation. Similarly, the foreign ETR of multinational groups was significantly higher in the years post-CbC reporting implementation, as compared to the foreign ETR pre-implementation. Conclusion: Based on the study’s findings that reveal a general increase in the average consolidated ETR per specific indicators, a possible explanation for such findings may point to CbC reporting requirements.

Optimal Progressivity of Personal Income Tax: A General Equilibrium Evaluation for Spain

Is the Spanish economy positioned at its optimal progressivity level in personal income tax? This article quantifies the aggregate, distributional, and welfare consequences of moving towards such an optimal level. A heterogeneous households general equilibrium model featuring both life cycle and dynastic elements is calibrated to replicate some characteristics of the Spanish economy and used to evaluate potential reforms of the tax system. The findings suggest that increasing progressivity would be optimal, even though it would involve an efficiency loss. The optimal reform of the tax schedule would reduce wealth and income inequality at the cost of negative effects on capital, labor, and output. Finally, these theoretical results are evaluated using tax micro data and describe a current scenario where the income-top households typically face suboptimal effective average tax rates.

A Further Inquiry into Factors that Influence Federal Personal Income Tax Evasion in the U.S.

ABSTRACT This study identifies factors that may have influenced the degree of aggregate federal personal income tax evasion in the U.S. An established tax evasion model is updated to include the most recent data available and augmented with the addition of heretofore neglected or overlooked explanatory variables. To measure the degree of aggregate tax evasion behaviour, we adopt the percentage of personal taxable income that was unreported to the IRS by using official time series data for the years 1980 through 2016. We incorporate previously resilient variables such as the federal tax rate, the unemployment rate, the audit rate of filed returns by IRS personnel, the penalty interest rate on detected tax evasion, and a measure of real income growth into our study. Each has a statistically significant impact on the degree of aggregate federal personal income tax evasion, consistent with prior literature. As an extension of the literature, we find compelling evidence that age, gender, the average effective state income tax rate, and the percentages of federal personal income tax returns that include Schedule C and/or Schedule A are additional variables that have been largely ignored in previous related studies but appear to have impacted tax evasion behaviour.

EFFECTIVE TAX RATES BY INCOME AND WEALTH CLASS

We use the Survey of Consumer Finances (SCF) from 1995 through 2016 to study trends in average effective tax rates across the income and wealth distribution. These average tax rates (ATRs) calculated from SCF income data are comparable to those calculated from external sources. We show that the wealthiest families have the highest ATRs, even as the income definition expands to include nontaxable sources and even though the wealthiest families are only sometimes among those with the highest annual income. However, the majority of income-producing assets held by the wealthiest are in the form of unrealized capital gains, effectively avoiding taxation. After altering the income concept to a measure of “potential income,” which incorporates changes in net worth and allows us to include untaxed increases in asset values, the wealthiest families no longer have the highest ATRs.

Optimal progressivity of personal income tax: a general equilibrium evaluation for Spain

Is the Spanish economy positioned at its optimal progressivity level in personal income tax? This article quantifies the aggregate, distributional, and welfare consequences of moving toward such an optimal level. A heterogeneous households general equilibrium model featuring both life cycle and dynastic elements is calibrated to replicate some characteristics of the Spanish economy and used to evaluate potential reforms of the tax system. The findings suggest that increasing progressivity would be optimal, even though it would involve an efficiency loss. The optimal reform of the tax schedule would reduce wealth and income inequality at the cost of negative effects on capital, labor, and output. Finally, these theoretical results are evaluated using tax microdata and describe a current scenario where the income-top households typically face suboptimal effective average tax rates.

A proposed cooperatives strategy for artisanal and small-scale gold mining sector in Zambia

The recent spate of gold discoveries in Zambia has necessitated the formulation of a coherent strategy to promote sustainable exploitation of gold for social-economic development. In this paper, a cooperatives strategy for artisanal and small-scale gold mining in Zambia is presented. The strategy exploits a state gold buying programme to promote three elements, namely, formalisation of the ASGM sector, poverty alleviation in communities hosting gold resources, and macroeconomic stability. To ensure the cooperatives thrive, a management structure was proposed and appraised based on three hypothetical small-scale gold mining projects. Additionally, tax policy was subsequently proposed to provide an enabling fiscal environment for the cooperatives. The proposed tax policy was assessed and compared to the current fiscal regime using the three small-scale mining projects. The current tax policy posted average effective tax rates of 52% – 55% and marginal effective tax rates of 43%– 45%. On the other hand, the proposed fiscal terms generated an average effective tax rate of 7% and marginal effective tax rates of 6%–7%. From these results, it can be concluded that the current fiscal regime imposes an excessively high tax burden on the artisanal and small-scale gold mining sector when compared to the proposed tax policy.

Research and Development Intensity and Effective Tax Rate: Empirical Evidence from India

This article examines the link between research and development (R&D) intensity and effective tax rates (ETRs) in India. We added a new perspective to the current base erosion and profit shifting debate in two ways. First, the study extends the literature on base erosion and profit shifting by providing empirical evidence on the link between R&D intensity and ETR in the context of emerging economy of India. Second, we investigate the R&D intensity and ETR relationship in a dynamic context using Bias Corrected Least Square Dummy Variable Model. We find that R&D intensity has a significant and negative effect on both average and current ETR. The results show that the effect of R&D intensity on current effective tax was more than average ETRs. We also find that larger firms are associated with lower ETR. A significant negative association was also observed between ETR and capital intensity. The dynamic analysis confirms the habit persistence in the ETR that current period ETR is highly dependent on its previous year ETR.