Autostereoscopic Technologies Research Articles

Assessment of autostereoscopic perception using artificial intelligence-enhanced face tracking technology.

Stereopsis, the ability of humans to perceive depth through distinct visual stimuli in each eye, is foundational to autostereoscopic technology in computing. However, ensuring stable head position during assessments has been challenging. This study evaluated the utility of artificial intelligence (AI)-enhanced face tracking technology in overcoming this challenge by ensuring that each eye consistently receives its intended image. The Lume Pad 2, an autostereoscopic tablet with AI-enhanced face tracking, was utilized to simulate quantitative parts of the Stereo Fly test and TNO Stereotests for contour and random dot stereopsis. The study recruited 30 children (14 males and 16 females, mean age of 9.2 ± 0.3 years, age range of 6-12 years) and 30 adults (10 males and 20 females, mean age of 29.4 ± 1.0 years, age range of 21-42 years) to assess the tablet's inter-session reliability. Agreement between conventional and the autostereoscopic tablet-simulated stereotests was tested in a larger group of 181 children (91 males and 90 females, mean age of 9.1 ± 0.4 years, age range of 6-12 years) and 160 adults (69 males and 91 females, mean age of 38.6 ± 2.1 years, age range of 21-65 years). Inter-session reliability and agreement were analyzed using weighted Kappa coefficient and non-parametric Bland-Altman analysis. The autostereoscopic tablet demonstrated high inter-session reliability (κ all > 0.80), except for the simulated TNO Stereotest in adults, which demonstrated moderate inter-session reliability (κ = 0.571). Non-parametric Bland-Altman analysis revealed zero median differences, confirming consistent inter-session reliability. Similar patterns were observed in comparing AI-based and conventional methods, with both the weighted Kappa coefficient (κ all > 0.80) and non-parametric Bland-Altman analysis indicating significant agreement. The agreement between methodologies was confirmed by permissible differences, which were smaller than the minimum step range. The integration of AI-based autostereoscopic technology with sub-pixel precision demonstrates significant potential for clinical stereopsis measurements.

Demonstration of an Autostereoscopic Three-Dimensional Light-Emitting Diode Display Using Diffractive Optical Elements Sheet

A prototype autostereoscopic three-dimensional (3D) light-emitting diode (LED) display using a cylindrical diffractive optical elements (C-DOEs) sheet as the optical steering element is proposed. The operation of the system and the calculation method of the system parameters are described in detail. The DOEs sheet is placed from a distance from the LED display panel which is five times smaller of the existing technology, and the column spacings of the pixels of the LED display panel are nonequal in order to equalize the distance between the viewing zones. The prototype has a 1.33 m $^2$ display panel, 384 $\times$ 144 resolution and a horizontal field of view of 60 $^{\circ}$ . The experimental result shows that the proposed method is a potential autostereoscopic technology for the large area LED displays.

Autostereoscopic Three-Dimensional Viewer Evaluation Through Comparison With Conventional Interfaces in Laparoscopic Surgery

In the near future, it is likely that 3-dimensional (3D) surgical endoscopes will replace current 2D imaging systems given the rapid spreading of stereoscopy in the consumer market. In this evaluation study, an emerging technology, the autostereoscopic monitor, is compared with the visualization systems mainly used in laparoscopic surgery: a binocular visor, technically equivalent from the viewer's point of view to the da Vinci 3D console, and a standard 2D monitor. A total of 16 physicians with no experience in 3D interfaces performed 5 different tasks, and the execution time and accuracy of the tasks were evaluated. Moreover, subjective preferences were recorded to qualitatively evaluate the different technologies at the end of each trial. This study demonstrated that the autostereoscopic display is equally effective as the binocular visor for both low- and high-complexity tasks and that it guarantees better performance in terms of execution time than the standard 2D monitor. Moreover, an unconventional task, included to provide the same conditions to the surgeons regardless of their experience, was performed 22% faster when using the autostereoscopic monitor than the binocular visor. However, the final questionnaires demonstrated that 60% of participants preferred the user-friendliness of the binocular visor. These results are greatly heartening because autostereoscopic technology is still in its early stages and offers potential improvement. As a consequence, the authors expect that the increasing interest in autostereoscopy could improve its friendliness in the future and allow the technology to be widely accepted in surgery.

Simultaneous intermediate-view interpolation and multiplexing algorithm for a fast lenticular display

Lenticular displays are a promising form of autostereoscopic technology and several products have recently been commercialized. For lenticular displays, typically several views of a scene are acquired from different viewpoints, or are generated by using depth information. If the depth information of a scene is known, then it is possible to easily generate several intermediate views simply by using the stereo image pair and depth information. The paper presents a simple method to cor- rect the lenticular alignment error by compensating the correction coef- ficients to the viewpoint determination formula. For the realization of a fast lenticular display and removal of image distortion and artifacts, the proposed algorithm simultaneously performs intermediate floating- pointview interpolation and multiplexing on the scanline using the left- view and right-view images and depth information. Experimental results show that lenticular images having considerably reduced distortion and artifacts are generated by using the proposed algorithm. © 2007 Society of

Principles and Evaluation of Autostereoscopic Photogrammetric Measurement

Stereoscopic perception is a basic requirement for photogrammetric 3D measurement and accurate geospatial data collection. Ordinary stereoscopic techniques require operators wearing glasses or using eyepieces for interpretation and measurement. However, the recent emerging autostereoscopic technology makes it possible to eliminate this requirement. This paper studies the principles and implementation of autostereoscopic photogrammetric measurement and evaluates its performance. We first describe the principles and properties of the parallax barrier-based autostereoscopic display used in this study. As an important metric property, we quantitatively present the autostereoscopic geometry, including viewing zones and the boundary of a viewer’s movement for autostereoscopic measurement. A toolkit AUTO3D is developed that has common photogrammetric functions. The implementation principles are described by addressing the differences compared to the ordinary stereoscopic technology. To evaluate the performance of the autostereoscopic measurement, images at a resolution of 25 � m and 50 � m are measured by a group of seven (7) operators, who are asked to digitize 18 well-defined roof points and 18 ground points. These results are evaluated by comparing the same measurements obtained from a popular stereoscopic photogrammetric workstation. It is shown that the precision of autostereoscopic measurement is about 16 percent to 25 percent lower than the conventional stereo workstation.

An autostereoscopic display providing comfortable viewing conditions and a high degree of telepresence

Research and development on 3-D displays make great progress and even autostereoscopic 3-D displays are on the verge of being put onto the market. The main market within the near future will be, besides entertainment applications, the field of multimedia desktop displays. The use of autostereoscopic displays makes it possible to watch 3-D images without special glasses. Particularly in communication applications dark spectacles hamper natural face-to-face communication. This paper presents a concept for a realization of a 3-D desktop display which was developed at the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute. In this concept a collimation optic was combined with an autostereoscopic display unit. In the past, collimation optics were usually used in head mounted devices. Only a few realizations of autostereoscopic displays are known, which combine autostereoscopic technologies with collimation optics. Studies performed at NASA's Langley Research Center showed that the usable volume of depth can extend to large values when a collimation optic is integrated in a stereoscopic display. Results of our work showed that a "puppet theater effect" is not perceptible when a collimated display is used. Two autostereoscopic prototype setups suitable for communication applications were realized that avoid the disadvantages of most common stereoscopic displays.