Automotive Gasoline Research Articles

Diving into the wicked discourse of lead ammunition for big game hunting

AbstractAs evidence regarding the toxicity of lead (Pb) amassed, the heavy metal became banned from several products, such as automotive gasoline and paint. However, Pb bullets are still used for hunting big game animals in most of the world. Although regulatory bans of Pb bullets may appear optimal solutions, stakeholders have reasons to oppose them, favor them, or lie somewhere in between. As the problem has transformed from biophysical to socioecological, we employed a wicked problem lens to dissect the discourse and help inspire targeted solutions. Herein, we identified and critically analyzed 4 relevant traits of a wicked problem: multiple stakeholders are involved, disagreement on a definition, unique nature, and being a symptom of a larger problem. To minimize the impact of these traits, our analysis suggests that voluntary Pb free ammunition programs are more likely to soothe conflict among stakeholders, enable collaborative action upon agreeing on common values, and promote programs tailored to the local landscape of sociopolitical power and values.

Enhanced detection of trace sulfur levels in gasoline by bismuth electrode using square wave voltammetry

This study introduces a simple, cost-effective, and rapid bismuth electrode-square-wave voltammetry method for determining the total sulfur content in automotive gasoline. Optimal conditions for the developed electrode, including various Bi ion concentrations, deposition times, and potentials, were established on a glassy carbon electrode. The results demonstrated that the highest response was achieved when the bismuth electrode was placed in an acetate buffer and a methanol:toluene (1:1 v/v) solvent. The method was validated with and without a 30-second electro-preconcentration step. The voltammetric method in conjunction with the preconcentration step exhibited a sensitivity of 571.81 nA mg L−1, a limit of detection (LOD) of 0.02 mg L−1, and a limit of quantification (LOQ) of 0.08 mg L−1. Without the preconcentration step, the method yielded a sensitivity of 421.89 nA mg L−1, an LOD of 0.03 mg L−1, and an LOQ of 0.11 mg L−1. The developed method was applied to quantify commercial fuel samples. The results showed that the electrochemical technique yielded a similar total sulfur content to that measured by the standard ASTM D2622 method, with an error of less than 7.5%. Moreover, the method proposed in this study had lower LOD and LOQ limits, meeting the EURO5 and EURO6 regulations.

Optoacoustic interferometric characterization system (OPTICS) for the evaluation of fuel quality through speed of sound measurements

Ultrasonic techniques have been applied to assess crucial physical parameters in various types of fuels including the speed of sound (SoS), the bulk modulus and the acoustic attenuation coefficient. Such investigations may have important practical significance as the knowledge of fuel properties is directly related to the analysis of combustion characteristics, engine’s overall performance and exhaust emission in the environment. Nevertheless, typical pulse-echo acoustic methods, require the exact determination of both acoustic source – reflector distance and the time of flight of a finite temporal width ultrasonic pulse, setting thus an upper limit as regards the accuracy of the measurements. To encounter these challenges, we present a novel technology implemented through a low-cost and potentially portable optoacoustic interferometric characterization system (OPTICS) for the investigation of SoS variations in common fuels including automotive diesel, hydrous ethanol and gasoline. At 25 °C, diesel/kerosene blends demonstrated a SoS variation ranging from 1322.91 m/s (0.6 diesel volume fraction) to 1349.79 m/s (diesel fuel only), whereas hydrous ethanol samples varied between 1199.92 m/s (0.95 ethanol volume fraction) to 1149.39 m/s (pure ethanol only). Finally, assessments for 95 and 100 research octane number (RON) gasoline blends showed a SoS range from 1134.42 m/s (RON 95) to 1159.86 m/s (RON 100). The high precision and repeatability (relative uncertainty: ∼10-4) of the performed SoS measurements in controlled samples, has demonstrated the promising potential of OPTICS for the evaluation of fuel physical properties as well as the potential detection of contamination with adulterants.

Streamlining aromatic content detection in automotive gasoline for environmental protection: Utilizing a rapid and simplified prediction model based on some physical characteristics and regression analysis

As the demand for aromatic content control in gasoline grows in order to reduce vehicle particulate emissions, the current study established a power regression model of aromatic content in gasoline based only on two physical property inputs: relative density (RD) and final boiling point (FBP). The model has been developed to predict the aromatics quantity in automotive gasoline, saving time and money by avoiding the use of expensive instruments, inconvenient spectra measurements that require many spectrum input variables. The model developed here yields low errors in terms of average absolute deviation (AAD%), average relative error (Er), standard deviation (SD), standard root mean squared error (RMSE) of the prediction set, and standard error of prediction (SEP), with values of 4.293%, −0.143%, 0.053, 1.06, and 1.58, respectively. When compared to earlier spectra-related PLS models, the model’s prediction applicability and error evaluation are adequate and acceptable.

Optimization and benefit analysis of the supply chain for sweet sorghum bioenergy production in China

<p>Bio-liquid fuel is one of the effective ways to alleviate energy shortages and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Sweet sorghum, as an energy crop used in fuel ethanol production, has enormous potential for development. However, due to seasonality, vulnerability, and logistical scheduling costs during transportation, the sweet sorghum ethanol supply chain faces significant difficulties and challenges in its development. To address the research gap, this paper proposes a multi-objective sustainable supply chain optimization model for Chinese sweet sorghum bioenergy based on mixed-integer linear programming. In this framework, the crop growth process model is first spatially extended to obtain the feedstock sources of the sweet sorghum ethanol supply chain. Then a site selection model for the feedstock collection stations and ethanol processing plants is constructed based on the geographic information system (GIS) to determine the candidate locations of the basic units of the sweet sorghum ethanol supply chain. Finally, a multi-objective supply chain optimization model based on the mixed-integer linear programming methodology is created to achieve the sweet sorghum ethanol supply chain layout and optimization at the national level. This framework takes into account the fuel ethanol market demand in China and the current state of the sweet sorghum ethanol supply chain industry, achieving national-level layout and optimization of the sweet sorghum ethanol supply chain. The total aboveground biomass (dry weight) of sweet sorghum on marginal land in China can be converted into approximately 37.212 million tons of fuel ethanol production, meeting the requirement to promote a nationwide 10% substitution rate for automotive ethanol gasoline. The lowest-cost supply chain layout scheme suggests establishing large ethanol processing plants near the Hu Huanyong Line, as this area benefits from abundant sweet sorghum yield on marginal lands and lower east-west direction transportation costs. However, the lowest carbon emission supply chain layout scheme recommends reducing the raw material supply area and increasing the ethanol transportation route to lower carbon emissions. The results of the sensitivity analyses indicate that lowering feedstock production and increasing ethanol demand increases the overall cost and carbon emissions of the sweet sorghum ethanol supply chain, while using rail transportation methods, increasing feedstock production, and decreasing ethanol demand reduces costs and carbon emissions.</p>

Alternative Options for Ebullated Bed Vacuum Residue Hydrocracker Naphtha Utilization

The vacuum residue hydrocracker naphtha (VRHN) is a chemically unstable product that during storage changes its colour and forms sediments after two weeks. It cannot be directly exported from the refinery without improving its chemical stability. In this research, the hydrotreatment of H-Oil naphtha with straight run naphtha in a commercial hydrotreater, its co-processing with fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) gasoline in a commercial Prime-G+ post-treater, and its co-processing with vacuum gas oil (VGO) in a commercial FCC unit were discussed. The hydrotreatment improves the chemical stability of H-Oil naphtha and reduces its sulphur content to 3 ppm. The Prime-G+ co-hydrotreating increases the H-Oil naphtha blending research octane number (RON) by 6 points and motor octane number (MON) by 9 points. The FCC co-cracking with VGO enhances the blending RON by 11.5 points and blending MON by 17.6 points. H-Oil naphtha conversion to gaseous products (C1–C4 hydrocarbons) in the commercial FCC unit was found to be 50%. The use of ZSM 5 containing catalyst additive during processing H-Oil naphtha showed to lead to FCC gasoline blending octane enhancement by 2 points. This enabled an increment of low octane number naphtha in the commodity premium near zero sulphur automotive gasoline by 2.4 vol.% and substantial improvement of refinery margin. The processing of H-Oil naphtha in the FCC unit leads also to energy saving as a result of an equivalent lift steam substitution in the FCC riser.

Hydrogenation of Light Cycle Oil to Produce Components of Winter and Arctic Diesel Fuels

This study proposed and experimentally investigated a novel approach to hydrogenation of light cycle oil (LCO) into components of winter and arctic diesel fuels (DF) environmentally classified as K5 as per the Technical Regulation of the Customs Union (TR CU) 013/2011 “On the requirements for automotive and aviation gasoline, diesel and marine fuels, jet fuels, and heating oils”. The process design involves atmospheric distillation of LCO with EBP 300˚C followed by hydrotreating. Hydrogenates with low concentrations of total sulfur (10 mg/kg) and arenes (28.6–38.0 wt %) and adequate low-temperature properties (CFPP≤–43˚C) were produced. An assessment of the physicochemical properties of the hydrogenates against applicable regulations for DF properties suggested that these hydrogenates can be effectively used as components of winter and arctic fuels by blending them into hydroisomerization diesel fractions (HIDF) and winter diesel fuels (WDF). An analysis of the main quality characteristics confirmed the feasibility of blending the LCO-derived hydrogenates into winter and arctic diesel fuels. Using GC×GC/MS examination, correlations were found between the hydrogenation process conditions, the physicochemical properties of the hydrogenates, and their detailed hydrocarbon compositions.

Development and Validation of a Variable Displacement Variable Compression Ratio Miller Cycle Technology on an Automotive Gasoline Engine

At partial load, traditional automotive gasoline engines have high pumping losses due to the throttling of the intake charge for load control. Variable Valve Timing (VVT) and the introduction of externally cooled EGR could reduce the pumping losses but only with a very limited effect. On the other hand, in the medium to full load range, the engine cannot utilize a high compression ratio due to limitations in knocking. A variable displacement, variable compression ratio device which utilizes an asymmetric camshaft to realize the different closure times of the two intake valves is discussed in this paper. The large-scale change in the intake valve timing leads to the large-scale change in the effective cylinder volume at the intake valve closure, which realizes a variable cylinder volume and a variable effective compression ratio. The device is utilized to reduce the pumping losses and to increase the in-cylinder thermal efficiency at the same time. Engine dyno test results indicate that, in the low to medium load range, a later closure of the intake valve could reduce the effective cylinder volume, and the intake pressure could be significantly increased, and therefore pumping losses reduced. However, the reduced effective cylinder volume due to a later intake valve closure would lead to reduction in the effective compression ratio (ECR) and a drop in in-cylinder thermal efficiency. Therefore, there is a balance point between the pumping loss reduction and the drop in in-cylinder thermal efficiency. On the other side, in the medium to full load range, when avoiding knocking becomes the major controlling factor of the combustion phasing (degree of constant-volume combustion) and the effective expansion ratio (EER), too high of an effective compression ratio would lead to significant drop in the effective expansion ratio EER and also the in-cylinder thermal efficiency. Therefore, there exists a best compromise between the ECR and EER, and the best system would be one with a moderate ECR but an EER as high as possible. The quantitative equations which include both ECR and EER in the thermal efficiency calculations captured the above observations pretty well and can be utilized to optimize for the best compromise of IVC, EVO, ECR, EER and engine performances during the concept stage and/or the calibration stage of an engine.

Incidental Occurrence of MTBE and Other Oxygenates in U.S. Gasolines after State-Level MTBE Bans, 2004-2020

The rapid rise in the use of MTBE in automotive gasoline in the U.S. in the early 1990s was matched only by its rapid decline in the early 2000s, the latter stemming from its unsettling and detrimental impact on groundwater and drinking water supplies following gasoline leaks and spills. Its decline was promulgated through implementation of numerous legislated, state-level bans, which along with the Energy Policy Act of 2005’s elimination of a minimum oxygen requirement for reformulated gasoline, effectively ended the “MTBE era” by the Spring of 2006. Despite the bans, most of which only prohibited the intentional use of MTBE, opportunities remained for its incidental occurrence in gasoline. In this study, we report on the existence, concentration, and frequency of incidental MTBE and other oxygenates (TAME, ETBE, DIPE, and TBA) in an ad hoc suite of 76 “post-ban” gasolines collected from retail service station dispensers in multiple states between 2004 (in states with early bans) and 2020. These results are compared to those for 75 “pre-ban” (oxygenated, reformulated, and conventional) gasolines. Using GC/MS full scan data with a method detection limit of 10 mg/kg, the results confirm the incidental occurrence of MTBE in 34% of the “post-ban” gasolines at concentrations between 980 and 17 mg/kg (avg. ± σ; 209 ± 307 mg/kg), which generally decreased between 2004 and 2020. MTBE’s origin(s) in “post ban” gasolines is reasonably attributed to cross-contamination with neat MTBE or MTBE-laden gasoline destined for U.S. export, and/or its otherwise lingering presence within the gasoline distribution system. Although less frequently detected, low concentrations (mostly < 1,000 mg/kg) of TAME, ETBE, DIPE and TBA were also found in 17, 14, 13 and 4% of the “post-ban” gasolines studied, respectively. The forensic implications of these results on constraining the “age” of gasoline-derived NAPL containing MTBE or of MTBE-impacted groundwater, which are equally applicable to the other oxygenates measured, are discussed. Of overriding relevance is that any presumption that MTBE completely disappeared from the U.S. gasoline pool after the implementation of the state-level bans and Energy Policy Act is false.

ПЕРЕПРОФИЛИРОВАНИЕ УСТАНОВКИ ПО ПРОИЗВОДСТВУ МЕТИЛ-ТРЕТ-БУТИЛОВОГО ЭФИРА

The paper considers the possibility of repurposing a plant for the production of methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) for the esterification of a light fraction of gasoline by catalytic cracking. The conversion of the MTBE installation to the process of esterification of the light fraction of catalytic cracking gasoline will allow obtaining an additional amount of high-octane component for automotive gasoline

A Preliminary Study on The Quality of Automotive Gasoline in China

A Preliminary Study on The Quality of Automotive Gasoline in China

Experimental study of the impact of metal (iron, copper and aluminum) surface and light exposure on gum formation in Iraqi automotive gasoline

In this study, the influence of various metals (iron, cast iron, copper, aluminum) and sunlight on the gum formation rate in Iraqi gasoline fuel (IGF) is studied. Gasoline has been doped with 5 g/100 mL of used metals and various concentrations (5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40 g/100 mL) of iron metal. Washed gum content has been analyzed employing ASTM D 381 after storage period of 30 days. The results explain that gum formation at 5 μg mL −1 concentration of different metals obeys the following order: iron cost > aluminum > copper > iron. The results explain that the maximum gum content is 24.4 g/100 mL employing cast iron and the minimum content via using iron metal (6.4 g/100 mL). The results prove that the rate gum formation is higher affected by sunlight in comparing with iron, and weaker influence from other metals. The experimental data shows that gum content strongly enhances via increasing of iron content. The highest gum content (21.8 g/100 mL) is at the maximum iron content (40 g/100 mL) but the minimum rate (6.4 g/100 mL) is at minimum iron content (5 g/100 mL).

Эффективность метил-трет-бутилового эфира и этинилциклогексанола на повышение октанового числа бензиновых композиций (бензина с установки замедленного коксования + риформинг)

Современным автомобилям требуется высокооктановое топливо с антидетонационными свойствами, характеризующееся октановыми числами двигателя 92, 95 и 98. Высокие антидетонационные характеристики достигаются либо путем глубокой модификации бензинов с использованием процессов каталитического крекинга, изомеризации, алкилирования, либо путем введения в топливо специальных высокооктановых присадок. Основной мировой тенденцией в улучшении экологических и эксплуатационных свойств автомобильных бензинов является использование многофункциональных присадок, в основном оксигенатов - кислородсодержащих веществ (спиртов, кетонов, эфиров и др.). Присутствие кислорода в молекуле оксигенатного топлива позволяет снизить вредные выбросы монооксида углерода на 30%, а несгоревших углеводородов - на 15%. В представленной работе было исследовано влияние двух таких компонентов - этинилциклогексанола (ЭЦГ) и метил-трет-бутилового эфира (МТБЭ) - на повышение октанового числа бензиновых смесей в соотношениях 40:60 и 20:80 бензина установки замедленного коксования (УЗК) и бензина риформинга. Показано, что использование ЭЦГ как присадки эффективнее, чем МТБЭ, для увеличения октанового числа бензиновых композиций.

DETERMINATION OF THE OCTANE NUMBER OF AUTOMOTIVE GASOLINES BY FTIR SPECTROMETRY WITH CHEMOMETRICS

The quality of motor fuels is more and more strictly controlled in connection with many factors - users are particularly interested in the anti-knock resistance of automotive gasolines, quantitatively expressed by the value of the research octane number (RON). The paper presents FTIR spectrometry in conjunction with chemometry as an alternative method to the standardized determination of the octane number of gasoline by a research method according to ČSN EN ISO 5164. An FTIR-PLS regression model working with spectra in the range of 650–4000 cm-1 was proposed for ON prediction. With this model, a very strong dependence (R=0.996) was achieved between the predicted of octane number values and the values determined by the standardized method; the calibration error was 0.414.

Relation of blood lead levels and lead in gasoline: an updated systematic review

BackgroundMillions of tons of lead were added to gasoline worldwide beginning in 1922, and leaded gasoline has been a major source of population lead exposure. In 1960s, lead began to be removed from automotive gasoline. Removal was completed in 2021.ObjectivesTo determine whether removal of lead from automotive gasoline is associated with declines in population mean blood lead levels (BPb).MethodsWe examined published studies that reported population blood leaded levels for two or more years, and we calculated average concentrations of lead in gasoline corresponding to the years and locations of the blood lead level measurements.ResultsRemoval of lead from gasoline is associated with declines in BPb in all countries examined. In some countries, BPb continues to fall after lead has been eliminated from gasoline. Following elimination of lead from gasoline, BPb less than 1 μg/dL have been observed in several European and North American countries, and BPb less than 3 μg/dL have been documented in several studies from South America.DiscussionThere remain many countries for which no multi-year studies of populations BPb have been identified, including all of Central America, high population countries including Pakistan and Indonesia, and major lead producers including Australia and Russia.ConclusionRemoval of lead from gasoline has been a public health success. Elimination of lead from gasoline has enabled many countries to achieve population mean BPb levels of 1 μg/dL or lower. These actions have saved lives, increased children’s intelligence and created great economic benefit in countries worldwide.

A novel capillary forces-founded accessory for reliable measurements of ATR-FTIR spectra of volatile liquids

Attenuated Total Reflection Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR) is one of the most commonly used IR sampling techniques. This is due to the simplicity and fastness of operation, and no need to pre-prepare samples. Furthermore, ATR is a non-destructive technique that allows the analysis of very small amounts of sample. Nevertheless, while it is easy to measure good-quality spectra of solids and non-volatile liquids, reliable ATR-FTIR analysis of volatile samples stays quite challenging so far. This is because of the changes that occur over the measurement time in the sample composition associated with its evaporation. Herein, we proposed a novel, simple accessory which makes feasible the long-time measurements of ATR-FTIR spectra of such samples. The concept is based on the capillary rise effect. Trapping the sample in the capillary minimizes its contact with the atmosphere, and therefore prevents its evaporation and possible interactions with oxygen. The tests carried out for two highly volatile mixtures (i.e. polystyrene dissolved in dichloromethane and automotive gasoline) revealed that using the developed accessory enables stabilization of the sample at an acquisition time extended for up to 40 min. This in turn allows for improving the quality of the spectra, which feature a 2.7–2.9 times higher signal-to-noise level than for the conventional measurements.

The study of the spark ignition engine performance at fueling with n-butanol-gasoline mixture

The actual challenges regarding renewable energy sources, pollution and climate changes have pushed industries sectors (including the automotive sector) to find sustainable solutions for long-term. Numerous studies have been conducted for to find the alternative fuels sources to solve the energetic and pollution problems. A special attention was given to alcohols use (ethanol, butanol, methanol) in mixture with the conventional fuels like gasoline or diesel. Butanol has a great advantage comparative with other alcohols due its better miscibility properties, allowing a butanol higher percentages use in mixture with gasoline or diesel fuel. Butanol is also less corrosive VS ethanol or methanol, which makes it ideal for the spark-ignition engines. An automotive gasoline engine with a 1.5L displacement was fueled with butanol in mixture with gasoline in deferent percentages, deferent dosages and deferent engine operation regimes. In the paper the effects are presented of the engine fueling with B15 fuel (15%-vol. n-butanol in mixture with 85%-vol. gasoline) on the combustion, on the engine energetic performances and pollutants. The experimental investigations (engine load 55% and 2500 rpm engine speed) showed the brake specific energetic consumption and the level of the pollutants emissions decrease at the butanol and the lean mixtures use, at the same engine power, comparative to engine gasoline. Another advantage of n-butanol is the stable engine operation at lean mixtures use.

Quantification of Sub-Pixel Dynamics in High-Speed Neutron Imaging.

The high penetration depth of neutrons through many metals and other common materials makes neutron imaging an attractive method for non-destructively probing the internal structure and dynamics of objects or systems that may not be accessible by conventional means, such as X-ray or optical imaging. While neutron imaging has been demonstrated to achieve a spatial resolution below 10 μm and temporal resolution below 10 μs, the relatively low flux of neutron sources and the limitations of existing neutron detectors have, until now, dictated that these cannot be achieved simultaneously, which substantially restricts the applicability of neutron imaging to many fields of research that could otherwise benefit from its unique capabilities. In this work, we present an attenuation modeling approach to the quantification of sub-pixel dynamics in cyclic ensemble neutron image sequences of an automotive gasoline direct injector at a 5 μs time scale with a spatial noise floor in the order of 5 μm.

An evolving research agenda of merit function calculations for new gasoline compositions

Gasoline engines have an even greater potential for optimization. New fuels composition should be corresponded with modern engine technologies requirements. One of these requirements is introducing merit function to assess the advantages of innovative motor gasoline formulations, regarding their anticipated influence on performance for future engines. This paper addresses producing new recipes of environmentally friendly high octane gasoline fuel grades RONs 92 and 95. In addition, preliminary mathematical digital model for evaluating a comprehensive merit function of automotive gasoline for newly proposed fuel motor compositions was developed to maximize gasoline performance and decrease emissions when operating gasoline engines at various conditions. Physical and chemical characteristics of these innovative gasoline recipes were investigated in accordance with standard test methods regulations. The vast expertise of this laboratory work has obviously reported that fuel compositions samples contained the following concentrations by weight percentage, i.e., light condensate naphtha – 46–56, isopentane fraction – up to 4, aromatic components – up to 20, MTBE –14–15, isoolefins hydrocarbons – 15–16, and isooctane – up to 20. The key hypothesis of the merit function was improved gasoline efficiency and reduce exhaust emissions when operating gasoline engines at various conditions. The results reported that calculated values obtained for developed compositions turned out to be slightly higher than for baseline gasolines. These mean that the proposed gasoline composition was more efficient when operating gasoline engine at this condition.

An Energy Management Strategy of Power-Split Hybrid Electric Vehicles Using Reinforcement Learning

With the rapid development of science and technology, the automobile industry is also gradually expanding due to which energy security and ecological security are seriously threatened. This paper was aimed at studying the energy organization strategy of power-split hybrid electric vehicles based on a reinforcement learning algorithm. A power-split hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) combines the advantages of both series and parallel hybrid vehicle architectures by using a planetary gear set to split and combine the power generated by electric machines and a combustion engine. This improves the fuel economy to some extent. However, to increase the fuel economy to a greater extent. This study primarily introduces the hybrid electric vehicle’s structure and presents a reinforcement learning-based management of energy approach for hybrid electric vehicles. It constructs the vehicle power model of HEV and Markov probability transfer model, then designs the energy control strategy based on reinforcement learning, and finally compares it with the energy control strategy based on PID (Proportional-Integral-Derivative). Using MATLAB/Simulink, the cycle conditions of NEDC (New European Driving Cycle) and FTP-75 (Federal Test Procedure) are selected to carry out simulation experiments. The energy management technique suggested in this study, which is based on reinforcement learning, may efficiently enhance the usage rate of automotive gasoline. The replication results show that the fuel consumption per 100 km (kilometers) based on reinforcement learning management strategy is 4.6% and 2.7% lower than the PID management strategy under two working conditions. The economy of fuel of the hybrid electric vehicle is also effectively improved.