Car Trips Research Articles

Linking Residential Parking to Automobile Transportation Impact Outcomes at a Development Level

Although there exists a well-studied relationship between parking policies and automobile demand, conventional practices evaluating the transportation impacts of new land development tend to ignore this. In this paper, we: (a) explore literature linking parking policies and vehicle use (including vehicle trip generation, vehicle miles traveled [VMT], and trip length) through the lens of development-level evaluations (e.g., transportation impact analyses [TIA]); (b) develop a conceptual map linking development-level parking characteristics and vehicle use outcomes based on previously supported theory and frameworks; and (c) evaluate and discuss the conventional approach to identify the steps needed to operationalize this link, specifically for residential development. Our findings indicate a significant and noteworthy dearth of studies incorporating parking constraints into travel behavior studies—including, but not limited to: parking supply, costs or pricing, and travel demand management strategies such as the impacts of (un)bundled parking in housing costs. Disregarding parking in TIAs ignores a significant indicator in automobile use. Further, unconstrained parking may encourage increases in car ownership, vehicle trips, and VMT in areas with robust alternative-mode networks and accessibility, thus creating greater demand for vehicle travel than would otherwise occur. The conceptual map offers a means for operationalizing the links between: the built environment; socio-economic and demographic characteristics; fixed and variable travel costs; and vehicle use. Implications for practice and future research are explored.

Институциональные новации и математические модели Рубена Смида в свете современных российских транспортных реалий


 
 
 
 В статье проводятся сопоставления современных российских транспортных проблем (реалий, новаций) с результатами исследований классика английской и мировой транспортной науки Рубена Джейкоба Смида, получившими широкую академическую и публичную известность в 40–60-х годах прошлого века.
 Произведена оценка соответствия ретроспективных и актуальных российских данных о смертности в ДТП «закону Смида», определяющему статистическую связь между уровнем автомобилизации населения и социальными рисками. На этой основе, в рамках базовой гипотезы Смида о «транспортном самообучении нации», оценена степень успешности этого процесса в России в 1990–2018 гг.
 Проведена оценка баланса спроса/предложения на ресурсы пропускной способности улично-дорожной сети города с применением «модели Смида–1966»; при этом подтверждена валидность этой модели в планировочных и трафиковых условиях современной Москвы.
 Проанализированы основные инструменты активного управления спросом на автомобильные поездки в рамках понятия «Road Pricing», введенного в научный оборот в Отчете Смида-1964. Произведена оценка эффективности, целесообразности и особенностей их применения в крупных городах России.
 
 
 

Planning the transition to autonomous driving: A policy pathway towards urban liveability

Autonomous vehicles (AVs) are expected to flood urban roads in the next future. Despite the optimism of the automotive industry and technology enthusiasts, AVs may have undesired impacts on urban liveability, especially if their diffusion is let to the market and not governed by public administrations. The door-to-door service they could provide and wider access to individual car trips can lead to an increase of short intra-urban car trips, to the detriment of public transport and active mobility. With few exceptions, the attitude of local authorities is dominated by a laissez-faire approach. The difficulty of dealing with high degrees of uncertainty and the absence of clear ideas on desirable visions are among the main reasons for this policy inaction. As a result of a collaborative backcasting process, this paper presents a vision to 2050, grounded on the extensive application of the superblock model, and the policy pathway to steer the transition to autonomous driving towards liveability and sustainability of the city. Governing the transition to AVs towards a desired vision is a complex process, that requires immediate action, farsighted planning and the cooperation of various sectors.

Do Waveforms Matter? Yes They Do! A Case in Point

A 38-year-old G1P0 presented to the Vascular Lab at 32 weeks gestation for evaluation of persistent left lower extremity edema. The patient reported a 1-month history of left leg pain and swelling after a long car trip. Of note, she had 3 negative lower extremity ultrasounds at outside imaging facilities over the previous 6 weeks. Left lower extremity venous duplex was performed with B-mode, color, power, and spectral Doppler using a linear 12-3 MHz transducer and curvilinear 5-1 MHz transducer. Images were documented using Intersocietal Accreditation Commission Vascular Testing (IAC VT) protocol. Left lower extremity duplex revealed continuous flow in the bilateral common femoral veins. Right common iliac and external iliac vein Doppler waveforms demonstrated spontaneous and phasic flow. Left proximal common iliac and external iliac veins revealed continuous flow. Acute, occlusive deep venous thrombosis (DVT) was identified in the left distal common iliac vein. The left common iliac vein was enlarged, measuring 2.2 cm compared with the contralateral common iliac vein measuring 1.4 cm. Ultrasonographic infrainguinal demonstration of acute DVT is straightforward and usually achievable with standard ICA VT protocol. However, imaging of the proximal pelvic venous circulation can be more elusive, particularly in the pregnant patient. Therefore, it is imperative to assess the spectral Doppler waveforms and to investigate pelvic venous flow. Because of the sonographer’s attention to the common femoral waveforms, additional focused pelvic imaging was performed and located acute, occlusive iliac DVT as the cause of significant edema.

Survey of E-scooter users in Vienna: Who they are and how they ride

In many cities around the world, electric (e-)scooters have emerged as a new means of transportation. They are often advertised as supporting modal shift towards more sustainable transportation and as a tool for enabling more equity in mobility. However, the environmental impact depends on how they are used and what kinds of trips they replace. Integration of e-scooters into urban transport systems also implicates discussions on fair road space allocation. In our study, we assess the socio-economic profiles and usage patterns of e-scooter users in Vienna, Austria. We differentiate between two basic groups of e-scooter users (renters and owners) and apply two different methods. Firstly, based on an online survey, we examine the age, gender and education of e-scooter users and we look into which kinds of trips (commuting, shopping or leisure) and which other means of transportation are replaced by e-scooter trips. Secondly, we analyse data from field observations at cycle paths in Vienna in order to determine the share of e-scooter riders and their gender distribution. We find that e-scooter users are more likely to be young, male, highly educated and residents of Vienna. According to the survey, there are considerable differences in usage between owners of private scooters and users of sharing schemes. Whereas in both groups, e-scooter trips mostly replace walking and public transport as a mode, e-scooter owners also show a considerable mode-shift from private car trips. These results implicate that e-scooter riders are additional users of cycling infrastructure. This puts further pressure on the current allocation of road space, which provides little space for active modes of transport. We conclude that city policies should address this competitive relationship adequately by allocating more space to safe and convenient cycling infrastructure and traffic-calmed zones. This could not only help ease the current challenges due to e-scooters but also provide better conditions for walking and cycling and thereby at the same time contribute to a more sustainable and equitable urban transport system.

Evaluation of salivary vasopressin as an acute stress biomarker in healthy dogs with stress due to noise and environmental challenges

BackgroundStress is associated with various detrimental changes in physiological health that affect an animal’s quality of life. The hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and the sympathetic-adreno-medullar (SAM) axis are two main physiological pathways that constitute the stress response of an organism. Arginine vasopressin (AVP) is a mediator of the HPA axis and is known to be related to social behaviours and stress. The serum concentration of AVP is higher in more aggressive dogs and humans with post-traumatic stress disorder. Salivary biomarker analysis is a non-invasive method to assess stress. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the possibility of using salivary AVP as an acute stress biomarker in dogs. Salivary AVP concentration was measured before and after exposure to all relevant environmental stimuli (i.e. car trip to the lab, physical examination by the veterinarian, and sampling procedure,) and then after 30 min of vacuum noise exposure. Behavioural assessments, physiologic parameter assessments, and serum cortisol analysis were conducted in combination. Statistical analysis was conducted separately in the total study population, the less stressed group, and the more stressed group, respectively.ResultsBased on stress behaviour analysis scores, 28 dogs were classified into less or more stressed groups. All four physiologic parameters (blood pressure, body temperature, heart rate, and respiratory rate) were significantly increased after noise and environmental challenges, in the more stressed group. Serum cortisol did not show any significant change. Salivary AVP significantly decreased after noise and environmental stimulation in the more stressed group but not in the less stressed group. Salivary AVP and blood pressure changes were negatively correlated in the more stressed group.ConclusionSalivary AVP may be a potential acute stress biomarker in dogs.

Trip chain based usage patterns analysis of the round-trip carsharing system: A case study in Beijing

In recent years, the concept of carsharing is rapidly gaining popularity in China, and the round-trip carsharing has become a common mode. However, few studies have revealed the role of round-trip carsharing in users’ travel. In this study, the round-trip GPS data provided by a carsharing company in Beijing, China is used to analyze the users’ usage patterns based on their trip chains. Through the extraction and analysis of trip information, all trip chains are grouped into three clusters, each of which has a different usage pattern. Then the consumption features and the shared car pick-up and return time of these three patterns are discussed. Further, the Bayes’ rule is used to predict the activity purpose, and the proportion and spatial distribution of different purposes are analyzed. Results reveal that the carsharing program presents multiple usage patterns to meet the different travel needs of users. Price incentives like coupons, discounts, and packages can attract more shared car trips. Users' demand for price incentives increases with longer travel distance and time. Also, users’ usage of vehicles and parking spaces has obvious peak hours. The spatial distribution of user activities has distinctly different hotspots. This paper can be beneficial for operators to set a reasonable pricing plan and provide better services.

Participatory quantitative health impact assessment of urban transport planning: A case study from Eastern Africa

BackgroundHigh rates of motorization in urban areas of Africa have adverse effects on public health. Transport-related mortality will increase as a result of inadequate transport infrastructure, air pollution and sedentary lifestyles. Health Impact Assessments (HIAs) have proven to be a successful tool to predict and mitigate negative health impact of urban transport planning policies, programmes or projects. Yet, there is a gap of evidence on transport and health in African countries. The aim of this study is assessing the health impacts of transport scenarios in Port Louis (city of 119,018 inhabitants in Mauritius) using a full chain participatory HIA model. MethodsWe estimated health and economic impacts associated to transport scenarios with qualitative data and quantitative comparative risk assessment methods. The health impact modeling was based on differences between the baseline and three transport scenarios (worse, good, ideal), estimating the averted deaths per year and economic outcomes by assessing health determinants of air pollution (AP), traffic deaths and physical activity (PA). Data on air pollution and traffic fatalities were obtained from public data sources. Data used to construct scenarios, establish baseline travel mode shares and physical activity were collected through (a) open-ended individual interviews (IDIs) with 14 stakeholders (b) closed-ended survey questions to 600 citizens and (c) 2 focus group discussions (FGDs) with the same 14 stakeholders from (a). ResultsIn Port Louis, the worse-case transport scenario (doubling in car trips and a reduction in walking, motorcycle, and public transport), resulted in a total increment of 3.28 premature deaths per year. The good-case scenario (reducing car trips by half and increasing walking, motorcycle, and public transport trips) resulted in a total increment of 0.79 premature deaths per year. The ideal-case scenario (reduction in car and motorcycle trips and an increase in walking and public transport trips) resulted in a total reduction of 13.72 premature deaths per year. We estimated USD 23 millions of economic benefits related to mortality if the ideal-case was achieved. ConclusionParticipatory HIA shows that implementing transport policies aiming for less than an ideal situation may not be adequate or sufficient to avoid negative transport-related mortality in Mauritius. Urban transport planning is an opportunity to encourage physical activity in rapidly urbanizing settings of Africa. Transport policies should aim to restrict all forms of private motorized vehicles and promote active and public transport to support public health. We highly recommend the use of participatory approaches in quantitative HIA to ensure context specificity and policy relevance.

Institute of Transportation Engineers Guidelines versus Actual Trip and Parking Generation for a Transit-Oriented Development in an Auto-Oriented Region

The Institute of Transportation Engineers (ITE) guidelines serve as the most widely used reference for trip and parking generation estimates for any new development in the U.S.A. However, recent empirical studies question the efficacy of ITE guidelines in forecasting trip and parking generation in transit-oriented developments (TODs). Following the methodology of studies on seven TODs across the U.S.A., this study focuses on Dallas (TX), as a more auto-oriented American city, to explore the trip and parking generation at Mockingbird TOD. It finds that, with the exception of Station Park in Salt Lake City (which is really a transit-adjacent development rather than a TOD), the Mockingbird TOD has the lowest walk mode share (13.6%), the lowest bike mode share (0.22%), the lowest bus transit mode share (1.09%), and by far the lowest rail transit mode share (5.9%) of all the other seven TODs. Similarly, the Mockingbird TOD ranks first in relation to the driving mode share, with about 80% of its daily trips generated by driving. This is almost twice as many driving trips as the average of the other six TODs, which makes Mockingbird an auto-oriented TOD located in an auto-oriented region where more than 96% of commuting trips are by automobile. Still, the total automobile trip generation rate in Mockingbird is about 12% lower than the ITE estimates. Similarly, while the parking supply in Mockingbird TOD is less than 48% of the ITE recommended supply rate, its peak parking occupancy is only about 55% of the TOD supply.

The E-Bike Potential: Estimating regional e-bike impacts on greenhouse gas emissions

Electric bicycles (e-bikes) have been found to offer a promising solution to reduce the greenhouse gas (GHG) impact of a region’s passenger transportation system. Using data from a North American survey of e-bike owners, a mode replacement model was adapted and augmented to consider the case of Portland, OR for various levels of e-bike person miles traveled (PMT) mode share penetration. It was estimated that for a 15% e-bike PMT mode share, car trip mode share could be reduced from 84.7% to 74.8%. Total car PMT per day could be reduced from 28.9 million to 25.5 million. Furthermore, carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from passenger transportation could be reduced by 12% after accounting for e-bike emissions from electricity generation and induced e-bike trips. An individual e-bike could provide an average reduction of 225 kg CO2 per year. These estimates show that e-bikes have the potential to help cities and regions achieve their climate goals. Additionally, this research can be used to support policies and programs necessary to facilitate the growth of this emerging mode to realize carbon reduction impacts.

Temporal origin–destination matrix estimation of passenger car trips. Case study: Medellin, Colombia

This paper develops a passenger car demand synthesis model based on entropy maximization to estimate origin–destination matrices for passenger cars trips using traffic counts for different years in an urban area. The model discussed in this paper improve current Origin-Destination matrix estimation techniques incorporating the total number of passenger car trips in the transportation network as a constraint, and secondary data sources for different years, giving a point of comparison for the results.The resulting model reveals that the trips are an exponential function of the Lagrange multipliers related to the trip cost, the observed traffic counts in the links, and the total number of passenger cars trips in the transportation network.Based on the results of this research, the authors recommend to the transportation authorities to collect traffic counts in strategic locations in the urban road network for different years to estimate OD matrices in an easier and cheaper way than the traditional OD surveys.The performance of the formulation for different years (2005–2008) is tested in the Medellín (Colombia) network.

Mobility as a service and sustainable travel behaviour: A thematic analysis study

Mobility as a Service (MaaS) is a novel brand of transport that promises to replace private cars with multimodal personalised mobility packages enabled by a digital platform capable of integrating travel planning, booking and ticketing, and real-time information services. It is an intervention that through its digitisation, connectivity, information and sharing merits intends to inspire and support the transition to a more sustainable mobility paradigm. Recent research suggests, however, that the potential uptake of MaaS might not be overwhelming; current car drivers could face considerable difficulties in bypassing their personal car for it and, more worryingly, future MaaS users may substitute not only personal car trips but also public transport journeys with car-sharing and ride-sharing services. This means that MaaS might not be able to create travel behaviour change, and even if it does, the changes may not be always towards the right direction. Through conducting 40 semi-structured interviews in three different UK cities, namely London, Birmingham and Huddersfield, and employing a robust Thematic Analysis approach, this study explores the factors underpinning the uptake and potential success of MaaS as a sustainable travel mechanism. The challenges and opportunities reflecting and affecting potential for responsible MaaS usage refer to five core themes Car Dependence; Trust; Human Element Externalities; Value; and Cost, each of them with distinctive and diverse dimensions. Policy-makers and mobility providers should realise that MaaS success relies on changing people’s attitudes to private cars (something very challenging) and thus they should incentivise responsible MaaS use, promote public transport as its backbone, use public engagement exercises and trials to expose people to the concept and somewhat demonise private car ownership and car use.

Implications of attending the closest school on adolescents’ physical activity and car travel in Dunedin, New Zealand

BackgroundHome-to-school distances and the need for students to be driven to/from school may limit adolescents' physical activity levels. School choice and school zoning policies can influence rates of active transport to/from school, and traffic volumes during school commuting times. This study aimed to quantify the effects of adolescents' enrolment in the closest school or not, on private vehicle use and adolescents’ physical activity levels in Dunedin city, New Zealand. MethodsNew Zealand Travel Survey data (2003–2013; 2493 Dunedin respondents) were analysed to examine school-travel related private motorised trips. Dunedin-specific data from adolescents (from six Dunedin non-integrated public schools without school zoning) were analysed including self-reported survey data on school travel modes (797 adolescents), distance to the current and closest schools (797 adolescents) and accelerometer-measured moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity (MVPA) (121 adolescents). ResultsDuring the school commute time (8–9 am and 3–4 pm), an estimated 11.5% of car trips (95% CI 7.8%–16.8%) and 12.5% of car distance driven (95% CI 8.8%–17.7%) were related to secondary-school travel with approximately half of these involving trip-chaining. Compared to adolescents living beyond cycling distance (>4 km) from their current school, adolescents living within walkable distance (≤2.25 km) and cyclable distance (>2.25-≤4 km) accumulated an additional 12.1 min (95% CI 7.0 to 17.2) and 6.1 min (95%CI 1.0 to 11.2) of daily MVPA during the school commute time, respectively. If adolescents currently enrolled at a distant school were to attend the closest school, they could accrue an additional 3.4 min MVPA during the 2-h school commute time period and school travel-related private car trips would be reduced by 7%. ConclusionsIn Dunedin, New Zealand, modest reductions in private vehicle traffic, particularly around schools, and increases in adolescents’ MVPA during the school commute period would be expected if all adolescents attended the closest school.

Co-driving: Passenger actions and distractions

Approximately one third of car trips involve one or more passengers and yet we know little about how the presence of a passenger helps or hinders safety and efficiency. To date, research in this area has focused on the possible distractive effects of passengers. Although we know that drivers conversing on a mobile phone is distracting and unsafe, epidemiological studies suggest that driving with a passenger has a lower crash risk than driving alone. This paper describes two studies into how drivers and passengers interact during a journey; a survey regarding the most common actions of passengers and how drivers view their helpfulness, and an on-road study of driver and passenger interactions. The results indicated several areas that drivers felt passenger assistance was quite helpful, but in some cases was exhibited very rarely. The on-road study revealed some interesting gender differences in who offers driving support, and who requests it. By understanding how passengers can contribute to safer journeys we can provide that information to drivers at risk, such as those very early or late in their driving careers.

Effectiveness investigation of travel demand management measures in Beijing: Existing measures and a potential measure–tradable driving credit

Facing serious challenges of traffic congestion and air pollution, Beijing has implemented a series of traffic polices. In this paper, we first investigate the effectiveness of existing traffic measures in Beijing and analyse the underlying factors from the perspective of drivers, which provide insights for the traffic regulations in other cities worldwide. While the car ownership restriction has effectively limited the total number of vehicle in Beijing, the effect of the car use restriction only lasts for a short period. A survey on drivers’ opinions and attitudes towards the traffic situation and a potential measure, i.e., tradable driving credit (TDC), is conducted. Although traffic data shows that congestion improved and traffic was slightly congested in recent years in Beijing, most respondents believe congestion is still serious in Beijing. However, they think the impact of traffic congestion on their personal car use is relatively low, which could partly explain why so many travellers still depend on driving given the relative convenient transit facilities in Beijing. In addition, a large proportion of respondents treat personal cars as a representation of social status and think driving bring them pleasures, which indicates that it may be hard to further decrease the share of car trips in Beijing. According to their attitudes and social-economical characters, respondents’ willingness on their changes of travel behaviours under TDC is investigated. The results show that individuals’ social-economic characters such as income level, education and family size and the symbolic meaning of personal cars have significant influence on respondents’ willingness to switch to other transport modes.

Incorporating public transport in a methodology for assessing resilience in urban mobility

Resilience has gained importance in the current research and policy agendas as it incorporates concepts of adaptation and transformation. Urban areas are complex systems exposed to different shocks, which have impacts on its various components. Research in transport has already incorporated the concept of resilience with more or less sophisticated approaches that are intensive on data and technical expertise. There is a need to explore the incorporation of resilience in simpler and less data intensive methods that can be easily applied in a wider range of contexts. One of the aims of this research is to develop a method that can use commonly available mobility management tools allowing smaller urban areas to analyse and plan for resilience. We present a new development of a method to assess resilience in transport systems with a commonly used mobility management tool (the origin-destination matrix) for calculating an overall measurement of resilience. The method assumes that car trips are transferred to active modes or to the available public transport routes in the event of any disruption in the system. We consider different scenarios of availability of public transport in case of disruptive events. We applied the method to two urban areas in Brazil. The variation of the contribution of the public transport presents patterns comparable between the two cases. The spatial distribution of trips shows the relative importance of resilient trips and the cities’ spatial structure. The inclusion of public transport routes has an impact on the levels of accessibility of lower income users.

Automobile Trips to School and Safety Perspectives of Unplanned Lokoja Metropolis in North Central Nigeria

Many studies on transport research did not consider the consequences of high reliance on the automobile trip to schools which frequently resulted to road traffic crashes, traffic delay, and late arrival to school, injuries and sometimes death of victims especially students. As a result, this research examines the consequences of automobile trip to school among secondary school students in Lokoja metropolis. It aims to investigate the safety of the use of the automobile in an unplanned city like Lokoja, with the specific objectives of ascertaining the number of pupils who embark on different automobile trips; the safety measures, and the casualty cases. Three hundred students were selected for questionnaire administration across six selected secondary schools in the city. Data on students’ road traffic crashes were obtained from archives. Descriptive and inferential statistics were employed for analyses. Findings reveal that more than 70% of students rely on the automobile to travel to schools. Car trips to schools were more among students of private secondary schools. Students in private secondary schools rely more on the use of a school bus. It was also discovered that students were involved more in traffic crashes along major roads. The study concludes on the use of school bus by students instead of relying on private cars.

Nonstandard ridehail use in Austin

Ridehailing quickly proliferated by geography and socioeconomic status following the 2012 introduction of UberX and Lyft, but did that proliferation extend to higher-priced, nonstandard-vehicle trips? What explains nonstandard ridehail use, who uses it, and where are they going? RideAustin trip-level data, land-use codes, ACS block groups, and parking data are analyzed using GIS and statistical software to find out. Results imply the nonstandard-vehicle, RideAustin traveler varied from the standard-vehicle traveler in several important socioeconomic ways, including access to a car, household income, race/ethnicity, age, education, and neighborhood trips per capita. About 47% of nonstandard-vehicle trips were made in neighborhoods with the highest carless household rate, and 40% of those were made in SUVs. Better tips and higher star ratings imply standard-vehicle passengers had a higher level of satisfaction compared to nonstandard-vehicle passengers. Policy recommendations are made to incentivize carpooling in these extra-capacity vehicles through subsidies.

Exploring the Relationship between Transport Interventions, Mode Choice, and Travel Perception: An Empirical Study in Beijing, China.

Transport interventions help to facilitate the sustainable travel behavior. The effects of transport interventions on travel choices have been addressed extensively. However, little research has been devoted to the influence of transport interventions and travel choice on travel perception. This study aimed to investigate the relationship among the three aspects. Two intervention measures, information intervention and public transport service improvement, were selected. Intervention experiments were designed to collect mode choice and corresponding travel perception in different experiment stages. Process models of information intervention and public transport service improvement were proposed. The results show that information intervention only had a minor effect on mode choice and had no direct effect on travel perception. Public transport service improvement in in-vehicle time and comfort enhanced public transport use dramatically. Comfort improvement also had positive effects on travel perception. Walking had positive and public transport trips had negative effects on travel perception. For travelers who had a high evaluation of car trips, the probability of green mode use would decrease. Travelers who gave high marks to trips by green mode would have a higher probability to keep traveling by green mode. This study contributes to facilitating public transport use and enhancing positive perception during traveling.

Modeling commuter modal shift from car trips to cycling: Scenario construction and outcomes for Stockholm, Sweden

This article presents the construction and outcomes of scenarios modeling commuter modal shift from car trips to cycling in the metropolitan region of Stockholm, the capital of Sweden. Building and improving upon previous studies in terms of both methodological approach and degree of spatial resolution of the modeling output, we examine scenarios where car commuters able to reach their workplace within 30 and 50 minutes of cycling shift commuting mode. Overall, car–bicycle modal shift figures were 31.6% and 48.7%, respectively. However, there were considerable geographical differences. While a substantial number of new bicycle commuters appeared in all five macro-level subdivisions of the study area, relative modal shift was by far the highest among car commuters living in the Inner City and its immediate surroundings.