Car Dependency Research Articles

A barrier too far: Understanding the role of intersection crossing distance on bicycle rider behavior in Chicago

For a variety of environmental, health, and social reasons, there is a pressing need to reduce the automobile dependence of American cities. Bicycles are well suited to help achieve this goal. However, perceptions of rider safety present a large hindrance toward increased bicycle adoption. These perceptions are largely influenced by the design of our current road infrastructure, including the crossing distances of large intersections. In this paper, we examine the role of intersection crossing distances in modifying rider behavior through the construction of a novel dataset integrating street widths and probable trip routes from Chicago’s Divvy bikeshare system. We compare real trips to synthetic trips that are not influenced by the width of intersections and exploit behavior differences that result from the semi-dockless nature of the bikeshare system. Our analysis reveals that bikeshare riders do avoid large intersections in limited circumstances; however, these preferences appear to be heavily outweighed by the relative spatial positions of origins and destinations (i.e., the urban morphology of Chicago). Our results suggest that specific infrastructural investments such as protected intersections could prove feasible alternatives to reduce the perception and safety concerns associated with large road barriers and enhance the attractiveness of non-motorized mobility.

Best practice in urban transport decarbonisation: a case study of three initiatives in Brisbane

ABSTRACT Avoiding the worst impacts of climate change requires a transition to net-zero greenhouse gas emissions by mid-century, if not before. Urban transport systems are a significant contributor to emissions, so effective mitigation strategies for this sector are needed. This paper starts by outlining a best practice framework for transport decarbonisation based upon a review of the international research literature that entails: shifting passengers to net-zero or low-emission modes; investing in more energy-efficient technology options; and managing the demand for transport through a combination of land-use planning and socioeconomic policies. This best practice framework is then applied to a case study conducted in Brisbane (Australia) to see how the gap between the concepts developed in the research literature and the practice of making a change may be bridged. A policy analysis of three key transport initiatives in the city was undertaken to determine how they measure up against the best practice framework. On the positive side, Brisbane has the advantage of providing a reasonably reliable public transport system, expanding its bicycle/walking paths and engaging local communities in the decision-making and implementation. However, Brisbane faces a high degree of urban sprawl and car dependency, exacerbating its ecological footprint.

Examining the association between the built environment and active travel using GPS data: A study of a large residential area (Daju) in Shanghai.

Automobile dependence and physical inactivity have become common health challenges for residents in large suburban residential areas. Limited literature has examined the associations between the built environment and active travel in such residential areas and the differences in these associations among residents from different neighborhoods. To avoid inaccurate results potentially derived from residence-based measures, we adopt a mobility-based approach for environmental exposure assessment. Using GPS data from 530 trips made by 98 participants in a large residential area in Shanghai, we investigate the relationships between neighborhood types, pollution perceptions, built environment features and active travel. The results indicate that residents in affordable and relocation housing make fewer active trips than those in market-rate housing, while the built environment seems to mitigate this difference. Sports facilities promote active travel while commercial facilities and road intersections discourage it. We identify significant interactions between the percentage of green space and neighborhood type, as well as floor area ratio and air pollution perception. Interventions promoting active travel include active-travel-friendly design for commercial facilities and road intersections, the provision of more sports facilities, a careful increase in floor area ratio, and the provision of more green space that is attractive to residents from different neighborhoods.

Assessing public transport loyalty in a car-dominated society: The case of Luxembourg

Public transport (PT) systems face the challenge of retaining users and preventing a shift towards individual transport modes. While satisfaction is recognized as a key factor in user loyalty, there is a need to understand the specific PT attributes that contribute to passenger satisfaction and foster loyalty. This study aims to assess the impact of PT service attributes on user loyalty, controlling for socio-demographic characteristics. Data from an online survey conducted in the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, a country with high car dependency, were analysed using logistic regression models. The findings highlight the importance of attributes such as reliable service, in-vehicle travel time, number of transfers, and feeling safe, while also identifying differences in attribute importance between bus and train loyalty. The study provides valuable insights for transport agencies and policymakers to enhance user loyalty and develop effective ridership retention strategies. These findings are particularly relevant in the post-pandemic scenario and can contribute to addressing car dependency challenges in diverse metropolitan areas. The paper concludes with policy recommendations to improve PT services based on the identified attributes.

BRT network design for transit cost reduction in Cape Town, South Africa

Car dependency in Cape Town, South Africa, like in many modern cities is high but comes at a high cost. One of these is significant network congestion, especially during peak commuting periods. A strategy adopted by the City’s transport development authority to alleviate this situation is the phased development of an integrated public transport network. A bus rapid transit service known as the MyCiTi BRT is proposed to be the backbone of the integrated network. However, an investigation of the existing service reveals a pattern of low ridership and high operating costs which is not economically sustainability. The main objective of this work is therefore to propose solutions to improve the existing service particularly in terms of increasing ridership and reducing operational cost. To achieve this, a network design approach known as simulation-based optimisation that combines simulation with optimisation algorithms is proposed. The results are compared with the baseline MyCiTi network. The outcome shows that the proposed methods are capable of improving the MyCiTi network and thereby its service.

Assessing perceptions of pedestrian-focused intervention in a car-dependent European island

Apart from the numerous social, economic, and environmental impacts of car dependence, the time people spend sitting in motorised vehicles has been identified as a sedentary behaviour that can negatively impact people's physical and psychological health. The climate breakdown and the COVID-19 pandemic have continued to expose the fragility and vulnerability of the urban environment and the imminent need for response, management, and radical re-thinking through innovation, especially within the transport sector. The incidence of the COVID-19 pandemic has also reiterated the need for urban centres to re-establish a sense of community, extend the benefits reaped from reduced motorised transport usage and boost small/medium-size businesses through the provision of active travel spaces. This paper investigates the role of pedestrian-focused intervention to encourage walking rather than car use for short-distance trips, within the context of the car-dependent small island state of Malta. The research includes the use of semi-structured interviews with a broad range of stakeholders to develop a virtual platform for citizen participation. The platform is an interactive space for participants to identify barriers that discourage walking and explore and evaluate options that encourage walking as a mode of transport. A discussion of preliminary findings sheds light on the impact of pedestrian interventions that encourage active travel and contribute policy-relevant outcomes based on the perceptions and direct feedback from citizens and stakeholders alike.

Challenges of sustainable mobility: Context of car dependency, suburban areas in Thailand

Urbanization and transportation have caused two critical issues in the challenge of sustainable development, particularly, challenges to sustainable mobility in the context of car dependency. This is due to all aspects of environmental, social, and economic has been continued influenced by transportation related issues. The challenges of sustainable mobility in the context of suburban areas have become aggravating situation due to massive migrations, thus Pathumthani province, represented as vicinity area of Bangkok, Thailand was selected as a case study. Data were collected from 1,998 respondents by questionnaire survey and analyzed using statistical analysis and visualization based on geographic information system, GIS application. The study results revealed that the urbanization process has led to an increase in urban development that attracts enormous migrations in searching for their opportunities (working and education trips). This phenomenon has positioned Pathumthani to serve as a supportive area for the spillover of rapid urbanization in the country's capital area which has led to the development of private car-dependent travel and public transport network, mainly concentrated in urban areas with exclusion to residents in remote areas. On the other hand, most areas sprawl with a scattered density of residential settlements, which existing transportation system development can no longer serve the continued rising travel demand as before. The findings confirmed that the current development pattern could not promptly meet the needs of suburban development, requiring the policymakers to launch an effective plan to meet appropriate transportation demands and promote good quality of travelling for the residents and commuters.

Agent-based simulation of shared bikes and e-scooters: the case of Lyon

Shared micro-mobility services are increasingly becoming popular in many cities. These services can help shape sustainable cities and reduce car dependency. To unlock their full potential, a deep understanding of these services’ operation, adoption, and integration within existing mobility systems is required. This paper uses a newly introduced agent-based simulation framework to study the implications of shared bikes and e-scooters in Lyon, France. The paper describes data collection, processing, and input data generation for the simulation of shared bikes and e-scooters. Simulation outcomes evaluate the impact of introducing these services on existing travel modes. The introduction of shared bikes and e-scooters can compete against public transit and walking. The simulation framework can be used to assess various aspects of shared bikes and e-scooters and help policy-makers take advantage of their full potential to improve urban mobility.

What access-for-all entails? Examining commuting experiences from subjective and objective accessibility in a fast-growing city, Jakarta

This research aims to comprehend commuting experiences in rapidly growing metropolis from the perspective of accessibility, especially subjective accessibility, to better understand barriers and opportunities to using public transport. We examined Jakarta as an exemplar city experiencing an ever-increasing car dependency despite proactive policies and projects for modal shift. A qualitative descriptive method is used to investigate the nuances of individual experiences across mode and incomes. In-depth analysis of 110 questionnaires indicated that the public transport users perceived a higher-level accessibility due to convenience, affordability, and no congestion, while private transport users had low-level perception. The stereotypes of public transport appeared to nullify the benefits of public transport. Furthermore, most individuals had complicated attitudes about a certain mode, and positive feeling was not necessarily related to mode choice. For “access-for-all”, considering objective and subjective measures holistically is essential for interrogating critical issues of transport system and optimizing positive travel experiences.

Ensuring sustainability via accessible transport systems for all in Accra and Kumasi

Africa is rapidly urbanising, and transport systems often cannot keep pace, leading to disconnected cities that might entrench car dependency (and preference), along with gender and socioeconomic inequality. In Ghana, transport emissions have risen 75% between 2000 to 2016, along with congestion, pollution and traffic accidents – despite attempts to quell the problem via bans on aged vehicles or more recently, penalties. This paper builds on prior work and argues that putting accessibility at the centre of transport systems will foster sustainability in these cities, yet such data is difficult to find, especially gender-sensitive mobility data. This paper uses a novel approach, combining qualitative and quantitative methods, to study the accessibility across genders in Kumasi and Accra and identify future scenarios for sustainable and accessible systems. This working paper presents preliminary findings.

The impact of parking pricing on mode choice

Over the past decades global urbanization has led to the rapid growth of cities. Mobility needs of inhabitants along with their emphasised car dependency have led to the constant increase in car ownership, while transport infrastructure hasn't followed this growth sufficiently. The consequences of this supply and demand imbalance are the numerous negative effects, such as: traffic congestion, time delays, illegal parking, emissions of pollutants, frustrations of drivers, etc. Having in mind that the essence of these problems lies in excessive car usage, policies contributing to the greater share of more sustainable transport mode are increasingly applied in transport management process nowadays. In this sense, parking policies, particularly parking charging, have proven to be very effective, supporting the implementation of sustainable transport goals in urban areas. It is well-known that parking charge can impact different patterns of user behaviour. For example, it can impact the user's choice of parking location or transport mode, trip destination, etc. Therefore, in order to properly define parking prices, it is necessary to understand the way users respond to them. Despite the importance of this topic, user response to parking policies has not yet been sufficiently examined. This paper aims to partially fill this gap. The aim of this paper is to investigate the parking price impact on user's choice of transport option based on the applied logistic regression, taking into account their socio-economic characteristics as well as trip characteristics. Transport options included the use of passenger car on the one hand and the use of more sustainable transport modes (public transport, taxi, walking) on the other. To fit the model we use data obtained by interviewing the users of one parking garage in Belgrade central area by revealed and stated preference methods.

Car Ownership and Post-COVID Urban Mobility across European Cities

The COVID-19 pandemic has greatly affected households’ mobility habits and choices in the past two years. Scarce evidence is available concerning medium term decisions such as the purchase or sale of a private vehicle. This work aims to explore the factors that have influenced households’ decisions to buy or sell a private car due to the pandemic and foresee how these decisions might influence their travel behaviour in the next few years. To achieve this goal, an EU-wide survey gathering information from 21 European cities was carried out during the second term of 2021, when lockdowns were no longer in place, but some mobility and sanitary restrictions were still maintained. The survey focuses on the impact of the pandemic and the consequent mobility restrictions on the transport habits and preferences of the respondents. The questionnaire collected socio-economic characteristics and mobility habits of 10,152 individuals. Interestingly, the analysis of the survey does not provide any evidence of a reduction of motorization rates for teleworkers. On the contrary, both partial and full-time teleworkers have bought significantly more cars than the rest of the groups. These findings greatly contrast with the fact that changes in daily habits resulting from the adoption of teleworking regimes are the main cause of reductions in car use among car buyers. This result suggests that further incentives for car ownership reduction are needed to harness the full potential of teleworking for decreasing car dependency. A positive relation between number of cars owned before COVID and car purchases has been found, pointing out that these purchases are probably not solving accessibility limitations for car-less households. Finally, a positive relation is also observed between car purchases and increased use of shared mobility services.

Silicon Valley Goes Green: The Origin of California’s Climate Regime

Abstract California presents a puzzle for scholars of US climate politics. In the early 2000s, it passed the country’s strongest climate laws despite the presence of the very factors that ostensibly explain their failure at the federal level: a fragmented system of government with multiple veto points, an active interest group landscape, and a major fossil fuel industry. Moreover, this was achieved under a Republican governorship in a state defined by automobile dependence. Scholars in political science and economics explain California’s exceptional policy emergence by reference to unique “focusing events” in the state, the leadership of elected officials, and the support of a broad advocacy coalition in Sacramento. This article presents an alternative explanation grounded in Gramscian political sociology. It marshals new evidence to argue that the political mobilization of Silicon Valley was the crucial factor in the emergence of California’s climate regime. Silicon Valley’s economic power, extraordinary potential to serve as the engine of a high-tech “green” capitalism, and its lead position in a new business-environmental bloc allowed it to overcome the resistance of the fossil fuel industry and to present climate policy as a winning economic strategy. This suggests that a credible plan for spurring growth, supported by significant fractions of capital, is necessary for achieving comprehensive climate policy.

Active transportation policy and practice in the city of Oulu from 1998 to 2016—A mixed methods study

Land use and transportation policies have been recognized globally as major sources of physical inactivity, but there has been a gap between research and policy implementation. Our objective for this research was to produce an integrated view of community planning policies and the association between urban form characteristics and transportation mode choices in the city of Oulu from 1998 to 2016. Our findings showed that increasing density and diversity of the urban form, emphasizing active transportation, and developing the city center were highlighted in the community and transportation planning policies. In practice, urban form development focused on the inner city, but in the outer urban area and urban fringe, sprawl and car dependency increased. Overall, the active transportation mode share decreased by 2 percentage points during the follow-up, but increases in density, mix and access networks were associated with increased walking and cycling compared to car use. In conclusion, no consensus was established in Oulu to limit the dominance of private motor vehicles. Decreased active transportation mode share might have been due to inadequately assessed functional mix outside the inner city, increased urban sprawl and building more capacity for cars. In the future, stronger political leadership, increased density, better access to nearby services combined with investments in public transportation will be required to meet the policy goals.

Who benefits from sustainable mobility transitions? Social inclusion, populist resistance and elite capture in Bergen, Norway

Transitioning to sustainable mobility systems is generally thought to require three approaches: avoid, shift and improve. We examine a combination of these in a city at the forefront of implementing transition policies, focusing on how the approaches interact and impact social inclusion. The Norwegian city of Bergen has pursued ambitious targets to reduce car use and promote walking, cycling and public transportation (avoid and shift). National subsidies have achieved more electric vehicles per capita than any other country (improve). Tensions between policies to avoid and displace automobility, and to accelerate electric automobility, center on the relationship between mobility transitions and social inclusion. Based on an in-depth qualitative study during 2020–2021, we analyze key examples of avoid, shift and improve approaches. We show that urban electric automobility risks undermining, not complementing, avoid and shift goals. We further demonstrate how populist politics mobilized around automobility reinforce elite narratives and pose a challenge to the legitimacy of transition planners and policy makers. We recognize different forms of depoliticization and argue that if socially inclusive mobility systems require overcoming the strong vested interests embedded in cultural attitudes around automobility, then depoliticizing an agenda to reduce car dependence – not just cars – can be progressive.

California’s Transit Village Movement

Transit villages—dense, mixed-use communities near rail stops—could increase rail ridership and reduce automobile dependency; however, few good examples exist in the US. today. Barriers to building transit villages include questionable market viability, conservative lending practices, and neighborhood opposition to multi-family housing. This paper shows, however, that there is a reasonably strong market demand for well-designed transit-oriented neighborhoods. After viewing visual images of simulated transit villages, more respondents from the San Francisco Bay Area expressed a willingness to live in a moderately dense community with nice amenities than in one with a third lower densities but little neighborhood open space or consumer services. Many current occupants of transit-based housing in California are young professionals living in one or two person households with just one car. What most distinguishes tenants of transit-based housing is their tendency to work in downtowns and other locations well-served by rail transit. The demand for good quality housing near rail has allowed some rail-served apartments in the Bay Area to command rent premiums. Strong market interest in rail-based housing, coupled with recent state enabling legislation, bode favorably for the future of transit villages in California.

Personal Public Transport in Australia: Developments and Prospects

The environmental, social, and economic cost of current car dependence is well known. But people tend to be unwilling to forgo the convenience of private transport. Personal Public Transport (PPT) is a new concept combining the environmental advantages of public transport with the flexibility of the car. The key elements of PPT are new multi-hire modes provided by maxitaxis and taxibuses to supplement single-hire taxis and scheduled services; integration of all modes into a single system; and provision of real-time information and booking systems enabling individual passengers to communicate with the transport system, whether they be at home, on street or in transit.This paper describes how PPT will integrate various technologies, such as automatic vehicle location systems, multi-hire dispatching systems, advanced passenger information systems, and smart card billing systems, together with some of the latest developments in Personal Public Transport.While the technical aspects of PPT are expected to be solvable relatively easily, establishing a complete PPT system will require institutional and regulatory change and a willingness to innovate by both transport operators and regulators. The paper describes changes occurring in Australia in the taxi and bus industries and in regulatory arrangements that will facilitate PPT, and sets out models for establishing PPT systems. It also assesses the potential for PPT from a marketing perspective and its relationship to new developments in urban planning. The paper concludes with a prognosis of how urban transport systems will evolve under the influence of environmental pressures, social values and technological developments, and of how our cities will emerge from the mass transit and private transport eras of the past to the new era of Personal Public Transport and Personal Rapid Transit.

Challenges for urban transport policy after the Covid-19 pandemic: Main findings from a survey in 20 European cities

This article explores the changes in transport and mobility patterns that were triggered by the Covid-19 pandemic, as well as citizens’ potential new expectations arising from this situation regarding public transport policy and urban planning. We conducted an extensive survey in 20 cities across 11 European countries during the second quarter of 2021, with a total of 10000 respondents. The information that we collected covered the change in the frequency of technology-based alternatives to travel -such as teleworking and online shopping-compared to the pre-pandemic period. It also included the change in trip frequency, purpose, mode and destination. Using the survey dataset as input, we applied a classification model that explains the change in mode choice based on the respondent characteristics and preferences. Our findings suggest that the changes in mobility patterns induced by the pandemic are the result of the combination of the degree of mobility restrictions imposed in each city, the adoption of new lifestyle and work patterns, and individual choices that depend on personal risk aversion. We identify three main challenges for urban transport policy: the increasing use of car that can reinforce long-term car dependency, the avoidance of public transport that may lead to financial and operational instability, and the uncertainty as regards the future of innovation in urban transport, especially as regards emerging technologies and business models.

Evaluating Compact City Model Implementation as a Sustainable Urban Development Tool to Control Urban Sprawl in the City of Jeddah

Urban sprawl is one of the most challenging urban phenomena. Many urban planners believe that it is difficult to achieve sustainable development without managing undesired urban growth. Since the 1960s, a wide range of urban planning policies have been introduced to manage urban sprawl. The concepts of New Urbanism, smart growth, and compact city started to be discussed and implemented in developed countries. Jeddah, as the second largest city in Saudi Arabia, is no exception. The planning authority has attempted to apply a compact city model to control urban sprawl. This study aims to evaluate the implementation of the compact city model in Jeddah by comparing the outcomes to what was expected. It presents the historical urban growth pattern and discusses in detail the effect of the policy implementation on both district and city growth level. The main study findings are as follows: (i) While the compact city model depends on encouraging people to live in high-density districts and mixed-use development to reduce commuting time and increase the efficiency of public transport, Jeddah failed to provide an efficient public transportation system to encourage investments in mixed-use real-estate projects. (ii) A higher population density was achieved (from 44 to 155 person per hectare), but it came with many other infrastructure, social, and economic issues. (iii) The implementation failed to control the sprawl as was anticipated. The city grew within the study area by about 20% and the price per square m was increased by 300%. Thus, the main finding of the study shows that to achieve noticeable sustainable urban development—in the case of Jeddah—the planning authority should aim for more regulation of flat urban development and promote a more realistic and sustainable intensification policy. A well-designed approach to guide future development and provide functional open spaces to enhance the sense of community, reducing automobile dependency and respecting all other local social, economic, and environmental aspects, could be more effective in reducing and controlling the rate of urban sprawl.

Public Transport Accessibility Levels for Ahmedabad, India

Public transport plays an important role in a city’s economy and its social equity. It is also instrumental in reducing automobile dependence and traffic congestion. Several factors must come together to achieve well-functioning public transport systems. One major factor is the level of accessibility offered by the public transport system. To better understand and consequentially enhance accessibility, we must be able to measure it and map it, which is the key aim of this paper.The methodology in this study, which was originally developed by the London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham and later adopted by Transport for London (TfL) has been adapted to the case study city of Ahmedabad, India. A GIS mapping tool was used to generate a visual representation of public transport accessibility levels (PTAL) taking into account average walk speed and time, distances to public transport stops, and peak-hour route frequencies of different public transport modes. The paper concludes with initiation of a discussion on the potential uses of PTAL mapping to enhance planning practice, such as formulating development/master plans with land use–transport integration, prioritizing public transport and supporting investments, formulating parking policies, and developing transit-oriented zoning regulations.