Authorization Decisions Research Articles

Reforming EU Pesticides Regulation, Rebuilding Public Support: Evidence from Survey Experiments in Six Member States

The authorization and use of pesticides in the European Union (EU) have become increasingly controversial and politically salient over the past decade. In particular the European Commission’s decision to re-authorize the use of glyphosate, the active substance in Bayer/Monsanto’s Roundup, after it had been classified a ‘probable human carcinogen’ by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), was highly controversial and triggered a lively debate on how to reform EU pesticide regulation. In this policy report, we assess whether and how specific reforms to decision-making procedures could impact public support for EU pesticides regulation, including acceptance of authorization decisions on controversial substances such as glyphosate. To do so, we first identified the main challenges of European pesticides regulation exposed by recent developments, including (but not limited to) the glyphosate controversy, as well as the actual and potential reforms proposed by the EU institutions, civil society organizations, academic commentators, and other stakeholders. We grouped these challenges and related reform proposals into four dimensions, namely: 1) the organization of the decision-making process; 2) the factors considered when authorizing pesticides; 3) sources of evidence and potential conflicts of interest; and 4) post-market monitoring and review of authorized pesticides. We then conducted a pair of linked online survey experiments on public attitudes toward reform of EU pesticides regulation in June 2020 among a representative sample of the adult population in six Member States (France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Poland, and Sweden, n=9022). Our results show that the introduction of systematic post-authorization monitoring and review, and consideration of all relevant scientific studies in the authorization decision are the two most promising reforms to increase public support for pesticides regulation. Moreover, if a hypothetical glyphosate authorization decision is taken under a decision-making procedure that citizens (strongly) support, they are more likely to accept it even if they previously opposed this outcome. Our findings are particularly relevant given that glyphosate is currently again undergoing a renewal procedure in the EU.

Bergère des collines par Florence Robert

Reviewed by: Bergère des collines par Florence Robert Ann Williams Robert, Florence. Bergère des collines. José Corti, 2020. ISBN 978-2-7143-1235-8. Pp. 208. This is a true story. As such, it carries within it the weight and depth of lived experience. This is also the stuff of myth. And for this reason, it brings to the reader a sense of familiarity but within a larger-than-life context. Florence Robert left city life to become a shepherd. This is not a romanticized abandonment of modernity but shows rather how one person joined a different kind of space, timeless and yet a part of the modern world: the difficult land of the garrigues in southwest France. And to what end? To raise sheep, to practice conservation grazing and to live in harmony with her world view and her world. Sheep, herd dogs and Florence Robert are the main characters. The latter is drawn to the region and is not fleeing tragedy or pushing contemporary life away. She is making a conscious choice to live differently. Far from naïve, Florence goes through rigorous training to make the transition to her new profession. She knows that her work with animals in her care will be a question of life and death and that her work with the land will bring it back to health. Picture overgrown scrubland where everything struggles to grow in the dry heat of summer and suffers in the cold of winter. Now picture a young woman, mostly on her own. Imagine the preparation: building cabins, out-buildings and fences with the aid of friends, family, and inhabitants of the region, so willing to help. Solar panels and water, animal feed and medicines, courage and strength are required to make this life possible. The first herd, one hundred ewes, arrives: "L'aventure prend ainsi forme d'une manière irréversible et plus que concrète" (26). The book is organized in journal form, where reference to dates and months remind us that this is still a world where humans have broken time into chunks. However, the true, underlying flow of the narrative is in the passage from night to dawn and dawn to dusk and the changing of seasons and the birth, the living, and the dying of the animals. The writing style itself underlines the variety of our narrator's experience. Poetic passages such as that describing the arrival of Spring—"L'éclosion est partout nubile, tendre de chair" (90)—are juxtaposed with the choppy notations of an exhausted woman faced with administrative tasks: "inventaire annuel de troupeau, carnet d'agnelage, carnet sanitaire, bons de circulation, comptabilité" (92). The author's decision to give readers an account of year one and then "ten years later" is also significant. She did not give up. Ten years later she is still a bergère des collines. She is a mentor and still a student of the nature she has espoused. She demonstrates in this book that we can take care of that which is within our reach. It has been within her reach to live this experience and to write. Both—it is clear—are done with great care. [End Page 241] Ann Williams Metropolitan State University of Denver (CO) Copyright © 2021 American Association of Teachers of French

EIA Directive Procedural Guarantees as Substantive Individual Rights in IL v. Land Nordrhein-Westfalen

Environmental impact assessments serve as a necessary tool for attaining the goals of the Aarhus Convention and the EIA Directive (2011/92). The Aarhus Convention and EIA Directive aim to guarantee the public’s right to participate in environmental decision-making, to be provided information necessary to effectively participate, and to have access to a procedure to challenge a decision. The ECJ’s recent case IL v. Land Nordrhein-Westfalen articulates the current interpretation of the European Union Member States’ obligations under the EIA Directive to provide individuals standing to challenge impact assessment decisions. This opinion reaffirmed that in cases where the procedural defect did not affect the outcome of the project’s authorization decision, Member States may restrict standing only to individuals’ claims based on procedural defects where it prevented their participation in the entire decision-making process. Drawing from Advocate General Hogan’s opinion in IL v. Land Nordrhein-Westfalen, this paper advocates for designating the procedural guarantees themselves as substantive individual rights. The existing EIA Directive and Aarhus Convention procedural rights are rendered ineffective if the information required to be disseminated in environmental impact statements is not provided. Lacking this information and blocked from challenging these decisions in court, individuals cannot be informed participants, cannot access a review procedure, and cannot fully execute their rights under EU law. If unchanged in light of this rights designation, current Member State laws may violate the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, and general principles of Community law.

An authorisation certificate-based access control model

There are currently many types of access control models and schemes that have been proposed to protect valuable resources in a distributed environment. Many such models have failed to take into consideration efficiency, security, practical implementation and management at the same time. Based on the analysis of conventional certificate-based access control characteristics, this paper proposes an authorisation certificate-based access control (ACBAC) model to realise access control in a distributed environment. Employing certificates in access control can help meet the various requirements in distributed networks or systems while ensuring security to a great extent. Efficiency and security can thus be improved by delegating the functions of making access authorisation decisions to the certificate issuer (CI). We will formally describe the model, introduce the application scenarios and the processes of the model, and provide the details of implementation. Finally, the effectiveness and superiority of the model is verified through experiment and analysis.

An efficient policy evaluation engine with locomotive algorithm

The evaluation performance of PDP (policy decision point), especially in large-scale policy sets, is one of the most significant challenges in XACML (eXtensible Access Control Markup Language). With high time-consuming and extensive storage policies, large-scale policy sets are becoming more complicated when their evaluation performance need to be improved. Based on numericalization and batch processing, a new locomotive algorithm is proposed to design and implement a novel policy evaluation engine called XDPNBE that can efficiently deal with large-scale policy sets and make authorization decisions in multiple circumstances. XDPNBE enables efficient decisions within an attributed-based access control framework that has a strong promotion of evaluation performance. By simulating requests, XDPNBE is compared with the Sun PDP, XEngine, HPEngine and SBA-XACML. Experimental results show that if the number of requests reaches 10,000, the evaluation time of XDPNBE on the large-scale policy set with 120,000 rules is approximately 0.21%, 4.69%, 5.67% and 9.66% of that of the Sun PDP, XEngine, HPEngine and SBA-XACML, respectively.

An access control and authorization model with Open stack cloud for Smart Grid

In compare to Authentication for identification and relationship of an identity of a user with its task and process within the system, authorization in access control is much anxious about confirming that user and its task in the form of system process, access to the assets of any particular domain is only approved when proven obedient to the identified policies. Access control and authorization is always an area of interest for researchers for enhancing security of critical assets from many decades. Our prime focus and interest is in the field of access control model based on Attribute base access control (ABAC) and with this paper we tried to integrate ABAC with openstack cloud for achieving finer level of granularity in access policies for domain like smart grid. Technical advancement of current era demands that critical infrastructure like traditional electrical grid open ups to the modern information and communication technology to get the benefit in terms of efficiency, scalability, accessibility and transparency for better adaptability in real world. Incorporation of ICT with electric grid makes it possible to do greater level of bi-directional interaction among stake holders like customer, generation units, distribution units and administrations and these leads international organization to contribute for standardization of smart grid concepts and technology so that the realization of smart grid becomes reality. Smart grid is a distributed system of very large scale by its nature and needs to integrate available legacy systems with its own security requirements. Cloud computing proven to be most efficient approach for said requirements and we have identified openstack as our cloud platform. We have integrated ABAC approach with default RBAC approach of openstack and provide a frame work that supports and integrate multiple access control polices in making authorization decisions. Smart grid domain in considered as case study which requires support of multiple access policies (RBAC, ABAC or DAC etc) with our model for access control and authorization.

Extant commitment, risk, and UN peacekeeping authorization

ABSTRACT Do aspects of current UN peacekeeping operations affect the willingness of that body to authorize new operations? Our theoretical arguments center on the capacity and costs of the organization – specifically the committed resources and risks associated with ongoing operations – with the assumption that greater existing commitments and perceived risks lessen the likelihood that the UN will create new operations. Related to the concern with risk, does successful diplomacy that produces a peace agreement in the conflict at hand lessen expected costs and therefore make authorizing new peacekeeping operations more attractive? To answer these questions, we examine UN peacekeeping authorization decisions over the period 1989–2016. Our results demonstrate that UN decisions to authorize new peacekeeping missions are connected to two forms of conflict management. First, successful attempts at peacemaking (evidence by peace agreements) increased the likelihood that a UN peacekeeping operation would be sent to that conflict in the aftermath of the agreement. We also demonstrate that the number of ongoing UN peacekeeping efforts are a strong negative predictor of whether or not the UN authorizes new missions. Theoretically, the concepts of perceived carrying capacity and risk, derived from other conflict management efforts, provided the explanatory bases for these effects.

La época de los descubrimientos y conquistas de ultramar: término de la Historia de Portugal de Alexandre Herculano, comienzo de la Historia de México de Lucas Alamán

<p>Este artículo tiene el propósito de contribuir a la discusión crítica sobre las características genéricas de la historiografía nacional escrita en los ámbitos europeo y americano durante el siglo XIX. Como hipótesis sugiero que, a través de los componentes de su estructura narrativa, la historiografía nacional simbolizó los ideales de constitución política del Estado-nación sustentados por sus autores. Para desarrollar esta proposición planteo un estudio comparativo de las historias nacionales de Portugal y de México compuestas, respectivamente, por Alexandre Herculano (1810-1877) y Lucas Alamán (1792-1853). El análisis del lugar narrativo de término o comienzo asignado, en cada caso, al mismo acontecimiento de las conquistas y descubrimientos de ultramar, revelará los presupuestos ideológicos implícitos en las decisiones narrativas de este par de historiadores de la nación.</p>

An ERP Experimental Study About the Effect of Authorization Cue Characteristics on the Privacy Behavior of Recommended Users

At the present time, consumers often disclose their privacy when using online platforms to receive personalized recommendation information and services, but they are also highly concerned whether their privacy is being violated. “Privacy paradox” is becoming a hot topic of research. What are the potential impacts of individual cognitive differences and situational cues on privacy decision-making? How to balance the internal causes of the “privacy paradox” so that consumers are more willing to accept personalized recommendation services based on users’ privacy data? Can the transparency of privacy rights ease user conflict perceptions and promote disclosure intentions? These questions are inconclusive. Therefore, the purpose of this our research was to explore consumer privacy paradoxical behaviors from a novel perspective of the characteristics of authorization cues, and to clarify the internal relationship between individual cognitive processing and privacy authorization cues. This study suggests that the big data platform, when collecting or using user information, should try to reduce the behaviors that induce users’ resistance. It also provides a reference for how to better achieve benign interaction in personalized recommendation between Internet companies and users. The event-related potential technique is adopted to explore the matching relationship between individual cognitive processing and privacy authorization cues and to analyze the internal neural mechanism of the personalized recommendation user in the authorization decision. The experiment simulated the privacy authorization situation, and adopted a 2 × 2 × 2 hybrid experimental design: authority sensitivity (high/low) * authorization transparency (with/without permission) * cognitive style (field dependent/field independent). The experimental results show that: (1) Authorization transparency, authority sensitivity and their interactions will affect the user’s privacy authorization behaviors, and the interaction of the two cues has a greater impact on the behavior than the role of a single cue; (2) The cognitive style will affect the individual’s attention resource allocation in the authorization scenario, which, limited by cognitive resources, will result in selective attention to contextual cues: Compared with the field-independent group with self-characterization as a reference, the field-dependent group induced a greater P2 amplitude; (3) When the two-cue valences in the authoritative scenario are inconsistent, the amplitude of the N2 component is greater than that when the valences are consistent, and the amplitude of the N2 induced by the field-dependent group is more affected by the scenario cue valence; (4) Regardless of whether it is a field-dependent group or a field-independent group, there is no salient difference in the amplitude of LPP components induced in each scenario. According to the results of this study, even if privacy authorization involves high risks, individuals tend to selectively seek supportive cues or avoid obtaining information that is inconsistent with their cognition. This research reveals the differences of neural mechanisms in users’ actual decision-making, provides the possibility for further exploration of the black box behind users’ attitudes and behaviors, and opens up new ideas for the study of the “privacy paradox.”

Efficient Authorization of Graph-database Queries in an Attribute-supporting ReBAC Model

Neo4j is a popular graph database that offers two versions: an enterprise edition and a community edition . The enterprise edition offers customizable Role-based Access Control features through custom developed procedures , while the community edition does not offer any access control support. Being a graph database, Neo4j appears to be a natural application for Relationship-Based Access Control (ReBAC), an access control paradigm where authorization decisions are based on relationships between subjects and resources in the system (i.e., an authorization graph). In this article, we present AReBAC, an attribute-supporting ReBAC model for Neo4j that provides finer-grained access control by operating over resources instead of procedures. AReBAC employs Nano-Cypher, a declarative policy language based on Neo4j’s Cypher query language, the result of which allows us to weave database queries with access control policies and evaluate both simultaneously. Evaluating the combined query and policy produces a result that (i) matches the search criteria, and (ii) the requesting subject is authorized to access. AReBAC is accompanied by the algorithms and their implementation required for the realization of the presented ideas, including GP-Eval, a query evaluation algorithm. We also introduce Live-End Backjumping (LBJ), a backtracking scheme that provides a significant performance boost over conflict-directed backjumping for evaluating queries. As demonstrated in our previous work, the original version of GP-Eval already performs significantly faster than the Neo4j’s Cypher evaluation engine. The optimized version of GP-Eval , which employs LBJ, further improves the performance significantly, thereby demonstrating the capabilities of the technique.

Health Preference Research in Europe: A Review of Its Use in Marketing Authorization, Reimbursement, and Pricing Decisions-Report of the ISPOR Stated Preference Research Special Interest Group.

This study examines European decision makers' consideration and use of quantitative preference data. The study reviewed quantitative preference data usage in 31 European countries to support marketing authorization, reimbursement, or pricing decisions. Use was defined as: agency guidance on preference data use, sponsor submission of preference data, or decision-maker collection of preference data. The data could be collected from any stakeholder using any method that generated quantitative estimates of preferences. Data were collected through: (1) documentary evidence identified through a literature and regulatory websites review, and via key opinion leader outreach; and (2) a survey of staff working for agencies that support or make healthcare technology decisions. Preference data utilization was identified in 22 countries and at a European level. The most prevalent use (19 countries) was citizen preferences, collected using time-trade off or standard gamble methods to inform health state utility estimation. Preference data was also used to: (1) value other impact on patients, (2) incorporate non-health factors into reimbursement decisions, and (3) estimate opportunity cost. Pilot projects were identified (6 countries and at a European level), with a focus on multi-criteria decision analysis methods and choice-based methods to elicit patient preferences. While quantitative preference data support reimbursement and pricing decisions in most European countries, there was no utilization evidence in European-level marketing authorization decisions. While there are commonalities, a diversity of usage was identified between jurisdictions. Pilots suggest the potential for greater use of preference data, and for alignment between decision makers.

ТРАДИЦИИ ГУМАНИСТИЧЕСКОЙ ЭПИСТОЛОГРАФИИ В ЭКСПЕРИМЕНТАЛЬНОЙ ПРОЗЕ АЛЕКСАНДРА ИЛЬЯНЕНА

The online prose of Alexander Ilyanen, recognized as one of the most significant experiments of Russian literature today, is not only a reflection on the possibilities of writing and utterance, but also an experience of rewriting of written forms. Recent prose of Ilyanen is a kind of philological observation of the usability of different types of writing to assemble a meaningful statement about the current quarantine situation. Correlation of these types of writing with the usual genres is not relevant, even introducing general framework of the novel and drama. Renaissance Italian epistolography as a way of producing situations, rather than roman à clef, clarifies Ilyanen’s prose strategies. A detailed analysis of the Renaissance letters by Poggio proves that he did not affirm the new model of language use, reviving the Cicero ideal, but he controlled effects of writing and biography, to improve official policy. The irony, intrigues, hints, social designing in these letters anticipate the tactics of professional blogging by eminent writers, but differ in responsibility for political decisions of both authors and persons mentioned.

Authorization of microbial plant protection products in the Scandinavian countries: A comparative analysis

The EU has developed a Directive on Sustainable Use of Chemical Pesticides (2009/128/EC) (SUD) that aims to enhance the use of non-chemical alternatives to pesticides like microbial plant protection products (PPP). The number of authorized microbial PPP for plant protection has increased globally during the last decade. There is, however, variation between different countries. Sweden and Denmark have for example each authorized 20 microbial PPP while Norway has only authorized four microbial PPP. Norway has also received significantly fewer applications for authorization of microbial PPP than the other Scandinavian countries. We explore possible explanations for the observed differences. Our results show that that the regulations in the three countries had similar requirements for the authorisation of microbial PPP. The size of the market is somewhat smaller in Norway than in Sweden and Denmark, and could therefore explain some of the differences. We suggest, however, that the most important explanation is implementation differences in terms of different decisions made in the authorization process. By comparing the authorization process for three microbial PPP in the Scandinavian countries, we found that Norway used more time for the product authorization decisions. Norway assess the same types of microbial PPP more restrictively with respect to environmental aspects and especially human health risks.

Representing Perpetrators

Representing Perpetrators

Erratum to: New technologies. Political, legal, economic and factual impact in Germany

Dear readers, The article New technologies. Political, legal, economic and factual impact in Germany, written by Christian Armbruster, was originally published electronically on the publisher’s internet portal on May, 19th, 2020 without open access. With the author decision to opt for Open Choice …

Correction to: Health care beyond neoliberalism?

The article Health care beyond neoliberalism? written by Bruce M. Z. Cohen, was originally published electronically on the publisher’s internet portal (currently SpringerLink) on 2 December 2019 with open access. With the author decision to step back from Open Choice, the copyright of the article changed on 1 January 2020 to © Springer Nature Limited 2020 and the article is forthwith distributed under the terms of copyright.

Mother Is a Verb: An Unconventional History by Sarah Knott

Reviewed by: Mother Is a Verb: An Unconventional History by Sarah Knott Susan E. Klepp Sarah Knott. Mother Is a Verb: An Unconventional History. New York: Sarah Crichton Books, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2019. viii + 306 pp. Ill. $27.00 (9780374213589). Sarah Knott's book on motherhood, mothering, and the early stages of childrearing challenges the traditional conventions of historical analysis—conventions that were largely established in Germany in the nineteenth century. History, real history, is written by experts whose deep knowledge of particular men and events [End Page 141] is tested through the dispassionate arguments of other experts in order to reach conclusions that help move human knowledge ever closer to universal truths. Stylistically, the formality of the prose, the complex sentences, and the Latinate vocabulary signal the seriousness of the historical enterprise. Like the sciences, history is an academic discipline. Knott has written a book that is perhaps more suited to our own times: to email and tweets, to informality, to diversity of opinion and experience, to a focus on the self, and to despair over ever reaching some shared vision of an identifiable truth. So sentence fragments, slang, and short paragraphs that shift abruptly from one subject to another confound a simple, linear chronology and leave conclusions and meaning to the reader. Sources are rather lightly footnoted, previous scholarship is mostly unquestioned, and there is no index. Women are not only present but central to the narrative. Rather than borrowing from scientific discourse, Knott presents a seemingly artless, casual, living-in-the-moment prose style that combines her personal memoir, written in the mode of a Joycean stream of consciousness, with an appreciation of the specific "historical circumstances" that refute "false universals" (pp. 83–84). But Knott's approach turns out to be artful and carefully plotted, not artless or haphazard. Two chronologies are seamlessly intertwined. One is Knott's lived experience as she and her husband decide to have a child. Miscarriage and then another pregnancy follow, then birth, breastfeeding, sleep deprivation, sickness, love, worries, and more. Her second pregnancy and another child complete this narrative. Weaning ends both the book and the physical bond that embodies Knott's maternity. The second chronology provides the historical framework for Knott's personal experiences. Here the focus is on the English-speaking world of women in Britain and North America. From the late eighteenth century to the present large families, frequent pregnancies, and long experience with rearing infants have been giving way to smaller families and fewer births. Formal education and career options for women compete uneasily with childbearing and childrearing. These tensions are accompanied by the anxieties of inexperience, an ignorance heightened by the hectoring of medical and self-proclaimed experts. Driving the methodological choices Knott makes is the limited archival record on or by women. Before the seventeenth century there is virtually nothing in the archive authored by women. Even after literacy becomes more widespread, there is little on some topics. Not surprisingly, almost no woman takes to her pen to record contractions, crowning, and birth as they happen. Surprisingly, neither do the sources give much insight on "the basic question—What is the history of knowing what to do, what is the history of uncertainties felt or dispelled?" (pp. 172–73). To highlight the diversity of reproductive and personal experience, ethnographic anecdotes are interspersed within these chronologies. Examples of birthing practices among Native Americans, African Americans, British factory operatives, immigrants, aristocrats, lesbian, and single mothers are among those populating these pages, but so fleeting are their appearances that it often seems that these diverse mothers appear to have no history. [End Page 142] The book is a good read and should appeal to undergraduates and the interested public. Scholars who specialize in women, fertility, family, birthing, baby care, and mothering will find little that is unfamiliar in their areas of specialization, but will benefit from the juxtaposition of a wide range of ideas and practices. Given the abundance of detail and interpretation, the author's decision to avoid "maternal mortality, infant loss, or forced relinquishment" (p. 17) is curious, and the book says nothing of the too frequent violence against women and infants. I would...

Adrienne Yabouza's Co-épouses et co-veuves: Female Exemplary Stories of Hardship and Improbable Alliances

Yabouza's 2015 novel entitled Co-épouses et co-veuves chronicles the emotional, physical and social upheavals of two widows, Ndongo Passy and Grekpoubou, after the death of their common husband. Here Yabouza explores an often ignored topic: the condition of widows and their children as they suffer discrimination, marginalization, extreme poverty, and exposure to violence in the aftermath of a sudden change of family status. The author presents this topic by letting the widows and an omniscient narrator describe their experiences and the fabric of the relationships from which they originate. In doing so, I contend, Yabouza attains two results. First, she challenges commonly held assumptions regarding the Central African Republic's liberation and the notion of female national belonging while providing a comprehensive critique of both discourses in the postcolonial era. Second, she creates an opportunity for deeper exploration of widowhood. The author's decision to offer multiple perspectives allows for the debate and discussion of vital female-centric subjects in the virtual space that she creates for her characters.

The Genesis of America: U.S. Foreign Policy and the Formation of National Identity, 1793–1815 by Jasper M. Trautsch

Reviewed by: The Genesis of America: U.S. Foreign Policy and the Formation of National Identity, 1793–1815 by Jasper M. Trautsch Lawrence B. A. Hatter (bio) Keywords U.S. foreign policy, Nationalism, Great Britain, France, Diplomacy The Genesis of America: U.S. Foreign Policy and the Formation of National Identity, 1793–1815. By Jasper M. Trautsch. (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2018. Pp. 328. Cloth, $49.99.) The United States remained a land of confusion at the end of the War of Independence. While the hastily built union of thirteen disparate states had managed to prosecute a protracted war against their former colonial master, the conflict had failed to create a strong sense of national identity among Americans. The United States did not have a hold on the heart of most Americans in 1783. Jasper Trautsch's new book argues that partisan debates about U.S. foreign policy played a key role in the emergence of national identity in the United States. The Genesis of America seeks to understand how Americans came to conceive of their national community being distinct from the other nations of the world. For Trautsch, U.S. nationalism was not the product of navel gazing among the Founders, but, instead, it was a "process of external demarcation" in which "the American nation needed external enemies to create a sense of national particularity" (9). The Genesis of America explores the emergence of American national identity by focusing on U.S. foreign relations with Great Britain and France. Trautsch justifies his selection by arguing that Britain and France were the two most powerful nations of the time and that they represented the "essential foils against which America's national identity could be forged" (17). The author's decision to exclude Spain from his analysis reflects Trautsch's conviction that most Americans viewed their western neighbors as a "decaying empire," despite the recurring western crises centered on navigation rights on the Mississippi River (17). In Trautsch's formulation, conflict lies at the heart of American national identity. Because American nationalism depended on emphasizing difference between the United States and the two leading European powers, U.S. policymakers pursued a "confrontational" foreign policy. Moreover, diplomacy became a key battleground for protean partisan [End Page 367] politics, as Americans fought about national identity. The Genesis of America charts the course of these political battles by looking at the interaction between policymakers and the partisan press. Building on the work of Jeffrey L. Pasley, Trautsch argues that the relationship between politicians and newspaper editors was not a one-way street, where the press served as a mouthpiece for the powerful.1 Rather, policymakers and the press both participated in a creative process by which national discourse on identity helped to shape diplomatic decisions taken in the national capital. The Genesis of America follows a conventional narrative of the political history of the early republic. The radicalization of the French Revolution in 1793 transformed the nascent partisanship of U.S. politics, with Federalists and Republicans aligning their competing visions of U.S. nationality with Great Britain and France, respectively. The proto-parties looked for ways to discredit their rival's vision of national identity and its association with one of the belligerent powers. The Republicans attempted to precipitate war with Great Britain during the Jay Treaty debates in 1795, while the Federalists succeeded in prosecuting a limited war with France in 1798–1799. The Quasi-War forced Republicans to drop their positive references to France. In their place, Jefferson and his followers articulated a uniquely American identity, grounded in democratic egalitarianism. The War of 1812 was a turning point in the formation of U.S. national identity. Trautsch argues that the conflict finally discredited Federalists' appeal to Britain as a foundation for American nationalism. The Genesis of America challenges Alan Taylor's depiction of the conflict as a thoroughly divisive civil war in which Americans and Britons fought on both sides.2 Trautsch does not deny that Federalists were opposed to the conflict at the beginning, but he argues that Federalists never countenanced serious opposition to the war, and, by 1814, they actually supported a defensive war. Trautsch's revisionism is most...

ПРОЕКТУВАННЯ БАЗИ ЗНАНЬ ДЛЯ СИСТЕМ КІБЕРБЕЗПЕКИ НА ОСНОВІ МЕТОДУ ЗМІСТОВНОЇ ІДЕНТИФІКАЦІЇ ОБ'ЄКТІВ

The article presents the results of research performed in the process of designing an expert system (ES) designed to assess the threats to information security (IS) of critical information facilities (CIF). The approach to designing of expert system on the basis of syllogisms and logic of predicates, and also a method of meaningful identification of objects of knowledge base (KB) is offered. The essence of the method is that each object of the database of the projected EU, is matched by a tuple of keywords (ToK), the significance of which is determined by experts. Thus, each database object is placed in accordance with the element of the finite fuzzy topological space of the database objects. Meaningful identification takes place on the distance between the objects of the database. The approach proposed in the work, in comparison with the decisions of other authors, has a number of advantages. Namely, it allows: to model different variants of cyber threat scenarios for CIF and their consequences; determine the contribution of each of the factors or components of the architecture of the IS CIF to the overall picture of the probability of a cyber threat to the CIF; model the interaction of all IS factors and, if necessary, visualize this interaction; calculate and further rank the values of cyber threat probabilities for CIF for specific threat scenarios; automate the processes of threat modeling through the use of developed software and significantly reduce the time for audit of threats. It is shown that the use of the method of meaningful identification allows to increase the adequacy of the models of the selected subject area, as well as to prevent erroneous introduction of the same judgments of experts and goals in the EU database, in particular by combining hierarchies of goals formed by different expert groups. It is shown that the method can also be used to find the goals of the hierarchy, the exact wording of which, according to keywords, is unknown.