Christian Authors Research Articles

Marxism and Religion: from Atheistic Prejudice to Scientific Approach

Introduction. In the light of Marxist social ontology, the theoretical inconsistency of Marxist atheism is revealed.Methodology and sources. The contradictions between these two aspects of Marxism are examined in the context of the works of K. Marx, F. Engels, V.I. Lenin, R. Luxemburg, and a number of contemporary materialist philosophers. Marxist philosophy is analyzed in a postpositivist key as a set of research programs within which atheism should be seen as an optional, hypothetical element of their “protective belt”.Results and discussion. Marxist social ontology, which has a communist character, and Marxist atheism, which is based on the bourgeois Feuerbachian worldview, cannot coexist in the “solid core” of Marxist research programs. Materialist dialectics exposes the bourgeois-enlightenment idea of the omnipotence of human reason, on which Marx's conviction that “conscious planned control” of social production will abolish religion is based. Scientific atheism is just as impossible as scientific theism, because ideas about God do not lend themselves to an unambiguous scientific definition due to their apophatic aspect (which, among other things, does not allow for attributing authentic Christian theology to idealist philosophy). Socio-historical practice does not confirm the superiority of the atheistic worldview over the religious one. The rejection of permanent resistance to religion follows from the Marxist requirement of a concrete-historical approach to superstructural social phenomena. The general philosophical and anthropological basis of scientific analysis of different worldviews makes it possible to constructively engage in interfaith dialogue as well as dialogue between atheists and believers.Conclusion. In a world of transformed social forms, the concept of fact is radically problematized. And this calls into question the atheistic critique of religion along the lines of “illusion or reality”. As long as the question of authentic human reality is not resolved in practical terms, an objective critique of the various concrete-historical manifestations of religion and atheism is possible on the scale of research programs only through the parameter “humane or inhumane”, that is, through an analysis of the impact of this or that worldview on the development of living human individuals and the essential human forces.

Ecclesio-Mariological Interpretation of Rev 12:1–6 in Early Christian Writings

Early Christian literature contains numerous commentaries on the books of the Holy Scripture, including the Revelation of St. John. Among the many symbols it contains, we can find an intriguing theme related to the sign of a Woman clothed with the sun (cf. Rev 12:1–6). Nowadays, the above-mentioned passage is most often interpreted in the Mariological spirit. An ecclesiological explanation is provided frequently too. It turns out that in the writings of the early Church authors, the reference to the Church was decidedly the dominant one, while the interpretation favoring Mary was almost marginal. A mixed interpretation was formulated too, for example, by Quodvultdeus. It features three images: ecclesial, Christological, and Mariological. This paper will present the statements made by early Christian authors, representing both the Eastern and the Western Church, on the meaning of the sign of the Woman in the Revelation, and on the ways they interpreted it in commentaries on this book of the Bible.

In Search of an Ideal Christian Follower in Modern Organizations

This paper offers fresh ways of thinking and perceiving the importance of effective followership in the context of modern organizations and Christian discipleship. It reviews the extant literature on the concept of followership to advance the importance of the follower role in modern organizations. Specifically, we examine the meaning of followership in modern organizations and the role and qualities of an ideal follower. We argue that followership is a self-conscious choice by the follower to actively partner with the leader to advance the organizational mission and objectives. We also discuss how Christian workers can blend biblical discipleship and organizational followership in the workplace to reflect their calling as true disciples and, in the process, benefit the organization. We propose a model for the authentic Christian follower, which can be further explored.

Spiritual Christians in Republican China: Reconceptualization beyond Pentecostalism and Indigenization

Pentecostalism contributes significantly to Christian revivals as well as to the rise of indigenous churches in the non-Western world. This is due to its proximity to local religious traditions, such as the practices of dream interpretation, healing, and exorcism. However, Pentecostalism as a term also reflects an American-dominated narrative; it has proven incapable of covering the main traits of indigenous Christian movements, either in the Global South or in China. For instance, in the 19th century—far before the birth of Pentecostalism as a modern term—both the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom (1851–1864) and the ministry of the legendary Pastor Hsi (Xi Shengmo 席胜魔, 1835–1896) expressed some Pentecostal characteristics. In the early 20th century, some indigenous churches, like the True Jesus Church and the Jesus Family, had clear connections with Pentecostal missionaries or organizations and showed obvious Pentecostal characteristics. However, leading evangelists such as Watchman Nee (Ni Tuosheng 倪柝声, 1903–1972) agreed with some practices of Pentecostalism and opposed others. Instead of claiming a Pentecostal identity (Ling’en pai 灵恩派), most Chinese Christians preferred to be defined as “spiritual” (Shuling 属灵). With the Spirit (Ling 灵) at the center, Chinese Christians went beyond the narrative of both Pentecostalism and indigenization; their exact aim was to seek the authentic Christianity of the apostolic age. “Spiritual Christian” (Shuling jidutu 属灵基督徒) would thus suggest a re-conception of part of the history of Christianity in China.

Female agents of Hell, Stoic luxury, and failing leaders: Erictho, Tisiphone, and the female gaze in Lucan, Statius, Dante, and Boccaccio

Abstract The Underworld imagery developed by Lucan (BC 6.507–830), Statius (Th. 4.345–645), Valerius Flaccus (Arg. 1.827–50), and Silius Italicus (Pun. 2 and 13) to reprove Rome’s power-hungry leaders, accused of the death of thousands in civil war battles, excited the imagination of Christian writers such as Lactantius, Ausonius, Jerome, and the Spanish Presbyter Iuvencus. The article explores the investment of this imagery with the Stoic notion of excess (luxury) and its impact on defining the Christian concept of sin as received and further developed by Dante and Boccaccio. So far, scholarly discussion has tended to focus on the Homeric overcoat of pietas and its opposite furor, which under the influence of Posidonius (135–51 BCE), came to be associated with traditional Roman virtues. Instead, I here focus on Erictho (Lucan) and Tisiphone (Statius) as symbols of sinful temptation and effeminizing excess (luxury), typically gripping its victims through the eyes. In response to these infernal female figures, Dante and Boccaccio attributed epic proportions to ethical life, turning it into a canvas on which they debated the Christian moral code of their times. The gendered principles underpinning sinful excess in both pagan and Christian authors are discussed, alongside the role of poetry in counter-proposing the figures of Piety and Clemency.

The “Angel of Light at Work”: An Assessment of the Christian Mission in the Southern Hemisphere

Today, it is commonplace to hear that Africa is the hope of Christianity. Using the Ignatian image of “the angel of light”, this paper proposes to qualify this belief. I will show that this belief is verified quantitively. However, the lack of authentic Christian witness makes the above assertion problematic. My analysis will focus on the tradition of the églises de réveil (awakening churches) in Francophone Africa, especially in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. This contemporary tradition is a hybrid Christian movement that combines Evangelical and Pentecostal attitudes. I will develop my analysis in three steps. First, I will discuss the nature of églises de réveil. Second, I will describe the modus operandi of these awakening churches. My discussion will indicate how this modus operandi works in urban and rural areas. Lastly, I will propose one perspective for authentic Christian growth. I will argue that a Christian mission needs to be radically Christocentric. This radical Christocentrism revolves around two major axes, namely a sign of contradiction vis-à-vis the world and a radical witness of the Gospel of Jesus Christ.

Polemical criticism of the “catholic” and non-canonical early Christian Epistles

The article deals with the “Catholic Epistles” from the New Testament and other texts written by Christian authors in the epistolary genre supposedly before the year 130 CE from the point of view of the polemical criticism, its main principles have been discussed in the previous article of this series. The aim is to define the theses which the early Christian authors argued with and to reconstruct as much as possible the currents within the early Christianity which left no texts of their own. In addition, it discusses the questions of the break between Christianity and Judaism.

Oneiric Authentication of a Miraculous Shrine. Case Study from a Dobruja Monastery, Romania

An interesting phenomenon of incubation ritual was attested in open air in southwest Dobruja at the very beginning of the 20th century, at a healing stone cross that, two decades later, was enclosed by an Orthodox Christian monastery. The article focuses on the narrative strategy that asserts Christian authority over the site. The strategy includes a corpus of legends that associate the origin of the cross with the local martyrdom past, its miraculous finding, and a modern hagiography whose main character is a thaumaturgic monk. The dream as a realm for divine communication, represents a theme that coagulates the entire narrative corpus and contributes greatly to the construction of a sanctuary. Over the last decades, energy and spiritual healing practitioners have enriched the group of visitors to the monastery.

Contesting Religious Truth

Abstract Christian theologians were involved in anti-Jewish arguments almost since the ‘parting of the ways’ of the two religions. In late antiquity and the early middle ages, anti-Jewish arguments were based almost exclusively on Biblical quotations, which were adduced as evidence meant to substantiate the Christian interpretation of scripture. It was only in the scholastic period that new forms of evidence were included in the traditional argument Adversus Iudaeos, which were derived from the recourse to reason. The Jewish figures presented by Christian authors within their writings are constructed entirely according to Christian assumptions and prejudices; only rarely do we get any real Jewish voices representing points of view close to any kind of Jewish reality. This only changed when growing numbers of Jews converted to Christianity in the high middle ages; Jewish converts drew the attention of Christian authorities to rabbinic literature. At first, the Talmud was targeted as a sinister text allegedly undermining theological truth, but later it was appropriated by Christian propagandists, who tried to base their anti-Jewish arguments on the post-biblical canon of Rabbinic Judaism. The article analyses the gradual expansion of anti-Jewish evidence; in particular, it highlights turning points when anti-Jewish strategies tried to include new methods and media to substantiate the credibility of Christian claims to monopolise religious truth. The Jewish side reacted against such attempts by reinterpreting and rewriting the history of anti-Christian Jewish arguments, notably on the occasion of the Paris Talmud trial. The redirection of Christian-Jewish arguments in the high middle ages provides ample evidence for the study of contesting truths, the substantiation and subversion of validity claims, as well as the rewriting of history in order to further political aims.

The pauperes in the ‘Libri Historiarum’ of Gregory of Tours

Abstract The paper focuses on specific case studies concerning the representation of the figure of the poor in bishop Gregory of Tours’ ‘Libri Historiarum’. The analysis of this source demonstrates how the needy, although on the edge of society, nevertheless constituted a significant spiritual resource for those who wanted to ensure the purification from their sins through alms, especially the richest. This constituted a dynamics of reciprocal remuneration through which, on the one hand, the suffering of the indigent was made less arduous by the charity of the divites; on the other hand, the pauperes themselves were believed to act in favour of their earthly benefactors in the afterlife. Although certainly marginal figures, the poor were not, therefore, completely excluded from Merovingian society in the sixth century. Rather, in the Gaul of the ‘Libri Historiarum’, an attempt was made to offer them adequate assistance thanks to the concrete measures taken by those who, whether lay or ecclesiastical, recognised, as Peter Brown has pointed out, the figure of Christ in every needy. Such benefactors were able to offer help to those who extended their hands to receive alms. At the same time, they earned a credit for the salvation of their souls to enter the kingdom of heaven. The different social function of the poor, as illustrated by Gregory of Tours, finds a full correspondence in the theological and social vision of other illustrious Christian authors of the sixth century, such as bishop Caesarius of Arles and, above all, Pope Gregory the Great. These maintained that, according to divine providence, the inferior pay respect to the superior and the superior show benevolence towards the inferior, thus creating a single concordant harmony. The paper, therefore, highlights the different social functions of pauperes both by studying some specific figures of indigents and by examining the ecclesiastical mentality concerning the general question of poverty and its effects on marginalisation.

Saint Louis Montfort’s Perfect Consecration “Totus Tuus”

The consecration to Mary, as taught by Saint Louis de Montfort, is a profound and transformative spiritual practice that has touched the lives of countless believers throughout the centuries. At the heart of Montfort's teaching is the understanding that Mary, as the Mother of Jesus and our spiritual mother, plays a vital role in our journey toward God. Through the act of consecration, we entrust ourselves entirely to Mary's care and guidance, acknowledging her as our advocate, intercessor, and protector. This act of consecration is not a mere formality but a profound commitment to live our lives in imitation of Mary's virtues, surrendering our will to hers and allowing her to lead us closer to her Son, Jesus Christ. By consecrating ourselves to Mary, we open ourselves to her powerful maternal love, inviting her to mold and shape us into instruments of God's grace, and to deepen our relationship with her Son. In essence, the consecration to Mary is an invitation to walk the path of holiness under her guidance, trusting in her maternal care as we strive to live authentic Christian lives. In St. Louis Montfort’s teaching, there exist two vital elements of the Totus Tuus consecration, namely: the nature of the consecration and the practices of the consecration. It has four fundamental characteristics that remarkably reflect the scriptural aspect of the consecration. There are also the so-called interior and exterior practices that provide people the knowledge of how to concretely bring the consecration to reality.

The Ideology of Social Traditionalism (Social Tradition)

The Ideology of Social Traditionalism (Social Tradition) scientifi c manifesto off ers a modern concept of traditionalism. Today, this line is based on the principles of “double” social solidarity: both between contemporaries (horizontal solidarity) and intergenerational (vertical solidarity). The idea of the fi rst type of solidarity has historically evolved against the background of the leftist thought. The second type of solidarity dates back to classical traditionalism. It insists on placing the priority on the historical heritage, traditional values and on the rejection of historical gaps in public life. According to the author, the relevance of social traditionalism (social tradition) is growing as the crisis of neoliberal globalism deepens and currently observed deglobalization processes accelerate. The opposition of the ideas of social justice and traditional values is one of the false alternatives imposed on the society. It emerged and is still maintained within the framework of the ideology of neoliberalism, which is now in a state of decay. The article highlights the common value basis of colonialism, Nazism and neoliberal globalism. A way out of the historical impasse is possible if two conditions are met: the neoliberal ideology must be rejected and the cultural and spiritual connection with the native tradition — authentic Christianity — must be restored. After the ideological paradigm and the socioeconomic model are changed, the synthesis of socialist and traditionalist ideas can take priority in the society. The right-wing traditionalism needs to be opposed to the left-wing social traditionalism, in which the ethics of justice comes fi rst. Instead of the classic triad “conservatism—liberalism—socialism”, the society will have to develop within another political triangle: “nationalism—socialism—traditionalism”. Social traditionalism assumes the equality of nations, peoples and cultures, aff irms their incomparability, incommensurability and uniqueness. It also advocates the society governed by the social justice and supports the overcoming of painful historical gaps in the life of each people. The author proceeds on the basis that “tradition is a set of ways to preserve the historical continuity based on endowing inheritance procedures with ethical meaning”. Tradition is a method of social and cultural construction rather than a subject of restoration. The basis of the Russian (Russian-Byzantine) tradition and identity can be defi ned using the well-known formula by Max Weber as follows: “Orthodox Ethics and the Spirit of Solidarity”.

Kilka uwag na temat recepcji twórczości Owidiusza w chrześcijańskeij poezji nowołacińskiej doby baroku

In the Neo-Latin poetry written from the fifteenth to the eighteenth centuries, one can find numerous references to the works of Ovid. The aim of this article is to reflect on the ways works by the famous Roman poet were received in Neo-Latin Christian literature of the Baroque period. The article discusses three poetry cycles inspired especially by Ovid`s elegies. Ovidius Christianus, whose author is the Jesuit Laurent Le Brun, refers to the Bible and informs about the New World in the form of poetic letters. Ovidius Christianus by Johannes Baptista Bebber presents in the form of elegies the moral principles of Thomas à Kempis contained in his work De imitatione Christi. The third item described is the booklet Novum liber tristium, which contains a series of seven elegies dedicated to the sorrows of Our Lady. The author of the article tries to show how the works of Ovid influenced the poetic imagination of Christian authors.

Biblical and Canonical Grounds for assuming the fulfilment of Man in the Ecclesial Ministry

This text explores the path towards human fulfilment in ecclesial ministry. It sees man's call to growth as a path to realizing one's God-given potential. Although sin obscures this call, God gently guides man toward renewal, culminating in Christ's restorative work. Seeking the kingdom reorients one's priorities toward eternity and aligns personal gifts with God's will. The Church nurtures these gifts, making each believer a vital, responsible member of Christ's Body. Through partaking of grace, one becomes a witness to the world. However, authentic Christian living requires continual purification. The calling to priesthood represents the pinnacle of service through total dedication. Chosen for their maturity and theological grounding, priests devote themselves completely to equipping believers for ministry. Necessary qualities include blamelessness, prudence, and virtuous living. Pastoral ministry starts from an inner call later confirmed by the Church. One who feels drawn to service and theological study discovers through this process a crystallization of vocation, assuming responsibility for living out God's gifts.

Exploring attributes for an authentic Christian spirituality in an age of growing secularization and scepticism

The focus of the article is to highlight authentic exponents of the Christian faith and to elicit the attributes of Christian spirituality. The first goal is to provide a backdrop of current notions and applications of spirituality and its impact on Christian spirituality. Secondly, to conceptualise spirituality in a universal sense. Thirdly, to examine spirituality within a Christian framework. With reference to the Christian context, biblical and theological resources such as the theology of Thurneysen (1963), Chmielewski (2017) and Ridderbos (1962), amongst others, will be applied. Biblical texts and leading authors on Christian spirituality will also be consulted. From these conceptualisations an analysis will be made regarding the different attributes of spirituality generically, and Christian spirituality, specifically. The methodological approach will be from a Christian hermeneutic perspective. Finally, conclusions will be made to highlight the findings regarding the features of authenticity and its link to attributes of Christian spirituality today.

Reconstructing Melito of Sardis’s Interpretation of Revelation’s New Jerusalem

Abstract Of the earliest Christian authors whose interpretation of the New Jerusalem of Revelation 21–22 has gone missing, the case of Melito of Sardis is perhaps the most regrettable. Heir to early Asian Johannine tradition and author of a lost treatise on Revelation, Melito had a high regard for the text. However, his view on the text’s much-contested New Jerusalem – whether it is literal, this-worldly, and millennial or allegorical, spiritual, and perhaps immanent – has never been studied. Building on and adding to an emerging consensus that Melito was not a millennialist, I attempt to reconstruct Melito’s understanding of the New Jerusalem by drawing on his Peri Pascha and surviving fragments from elsewhere in his corpus. In the end, I discover him to have a firmly ecclesiological and mystical understanding of the city. That he advanced this understanding, which he presents without qualification or apology, indicates further that Melito likely bears witness to a yet earlier spiritual and allegorical reading of Revelation’s Heavenly Jerusalem.

Genesis 1:26 through the Eyes of Manicheans in the Roman Empire

Abstract The present article reconstructs the evolution of the Manichaean exegesis of Genesis 1:26 based on the texts that circulated within the Roman Empire. Mani’s Epistula Fundamenti, Adimantus’ Disputationes, Kephalaia of the Teacher, Faustus’ Capitula 24, as well as polemical works of Christian authors provide ample evidence of the Manichaean use and interpretation of the biblical narrative. Two complementary exegetical traditions can be distinguished: the first one, going back to Mani himself, introduces vetero-testamentary elements in the Manichaean doctrine without directly referencing or criticizing the Jewish Scriptures, while the second tradition that directly engages in the exegesis of the Jewish Scriptures text emerged through polemics with Christians and is likely to originate from Adimantus. The study illustrates a dual role of the Book of Genesis in Manichaeism: as one of the sources of the Manichaean mythology and as a central point of contention in Christian-Manichaean polemics.

Greek Literature and Christian Doctrine in Early Christianity: A Difficult Co-Existence

This paper traces the complex relationship between classical literature and Christian doctrine in the first four centuries. In the earliest period of Christianity, we can identify two attitudes of Christians towards Greek literature: the hostile attitude shown by Tatian, Theophilus, and Tertullian, and the openness to Greek culture and philosophy demonstrated by Justin the Martyr, Athenagoras of Athens, and Minucius Felix. A notable change happened in the Alexandrian milieu when Clement of Alexandria and Origen started considering Greek classics the embodiment of an authentic Christian spirit. In keeping with Origen, Basil of Caesarea realized a good synthesis between Greek thought and Christian faith. Noting germs of divine revelation in ancient Greek thought, Christian authors took the tools of Greco-Roman criticism and ancient philosophy to develop their doctrine.

The manifestation of Christian attitudes in the anthropology of Marcus Aurelius

Introduction. The article is devoted to the study of the anthropological attitudes of Marcus Aurelius, formed as a result of the mutual influence of Roman Stoicism and early Christianity. The purpose of this work is to conduct a comparative analysis of the late Stoic and Christian axiology, ethics and demonstrate their relevance in the modern era of postmodernist value disorientation.Materials and Methods. The material of the study is the writings of Marcus Aurelius, the New Testament canonical epistles, the works of Christian apologists of the first centuries, as well as the works of contemporary domestic and foreign authors devoted to the spiritual situation in the Roman Empire during the reign of Marcus Aurelius, the moral foundations of Roman stoicism; anthropological, ethical ideas of the ancient philosopher associated with Christian thought; the views of early Christian authors on the worldview of the emperor and Roman stoicism. The author relied on civilizational and dialectical approaches, used methods: hermeneutic, analytical, synthesis, generalization, reconstruction of philosophical views, comparative historical.Results. As a result of the work done, it was found that the essentially Christian anthropological, axiological ideas of Marcus Aurelius (the essence of man, his path in history and posthumous fate, ethical constants) were formed as a result of a bilateral influence: stoicism on the formation of Christian doctrine in the I-II centuries, Christianity - on the worldview of the thinker. Being a persecutor of Christians, the philosopher on the throne unconsciously embodied the goals pursued by the young religion.Discussion and Conclusions. The author managed to carry out a comparative analysis of the anthropology, ethics and axiology of Marcus Aurelius and early Christianity. The study convincingly showed that the demarcation between ancient pagan antiquity and medieval Christianity accepted in philosophical science is conditional. The chronological definition of these historical periods is also conditional. This interpenetration of eras is confirmed by the enormous influence of Roman stoicism on the formation of Christian apologetics, as well as the anthropological, ethical and axiological attitudes of the Roman Stoic Marcus Aurelius congenial to Christianity.

Polemical criticism of the “catholic” and non-canonical early Christian Epistles

The article deals with the “Catholic Epistles” from the New Testament and other texts written by Christian authors in the epistolary genre supposedly before the year 130 CE from the point of view of the polemical criticism, its main principles have been discussed in the previous article of this series. The aim is to define the theses which the early Christian authors argued with and to reconstruct as much as possible the currents within the early Christianity which left no texts of their own. In addition, it discusses the questions of the break between Christianity and Judaism.