Author Of Hebrews Research Articles

신약성서 안에서 ύπόστασιϛ의 의미

ύπόστασιϛ has been employed as a term for a person in the doctrine of the Trinity. Therefore, it is a word that plays a critical role in the history of Christian doctrine. However, in the Bible, this word may be one of the most challenging terms to translate. In the New Testament, this word hasn’t been translated identically, despite its a few examples. Religious reformers have translated this word as trust and confidence, reflecting their theological perspectives.<BR> For an accurate and consistent translation ofύπόστασιϛ, we need to take a look at the conceptual history of ύπόστασιϛ in ancient Greek documents. The fundamental problem in ancient Greek ontology was that the Transcendental Being could not enter the limited individual due to its substantial nature.ύπόστασιϛ resolved the problem in the ontology of this ancient philosophy by enabling a connection between the Transcendental Being and the limited one while keeping the essential nature of the Transcendental Being. In ancient Greek philosophy, the reason why ύπόστασιϛ was able to play a role as a link between the Transcendental Being and the limited one was that the word had the meaning of continuance(Bestand) and existence(Wirklichkeit) at the same time. These two meanings are likely to have been driven initially by different schools. But the two became a unified concept when Poseidonios, one of the main figures of the Middle Stoics, combined the ideas. Thus, the ontological possibility, which means the Transcendental Being keeping its nature could exist in the limited individuals, was made possible through ύπόστασιϛ.<BR> The meaning of ύπόστασιϛ found in conceptual history can be used for the translation of ύπόστασιϛ in the New Testament. In the New Testament, ύπόστασιϛ is employed five times by two authors (2 Corinthians 9:4; 11:17; Hebrews 1:3; 3:14; 11:1). However, ύπόστασιϛ was not translated identically in other foreign language Bibles as well as the KRV. Although sense-for-sense translation benefits the audience’s understanding, the translation’s purpose to carry its original denotation should not be lost. Consequentially, contextually liberal translation poses the threat of misunderstanding of the author’s intention.<BR> Most of all, in the texts of the New Testament, it is important that ύπόστασιϛ was used to bridge opposing points that are difficult to reconcile contextually in the texts of the New Testament. Contrary to the author of Hebrews, Paul used ύπόστασιϛ to personally imply conflicts within the church whilst the author of Hebrews used ύπόστασιϛ within the theological scope. Paul applied ύπόστασιϛ to describe his situation instead of theological perspectives, while the author of Hebrews applied u`po,stasij in the meaning of the theological subjects. The actual aspects of Paul himself in his situation is delicately expressed through ύπόστασιϛ, and Paul prepares lessons and encouragements for the status of the church through this. In Hebrews, the revelation of the existence of God in the present day has been portrayed through ύπόστασιϛ. Hebrews 1:3 has an almost perfect theological agreement with the example used by Trinitarianism, which is the final purpose of studying this word.<BR> Therefore, the fundamental ontological meaning of existence should not be weakened or alienated within all these examples. The translation should be attempted within the range containing the fundamental meaning of existence in line with the context and authors’ intent. The uniform translation of ύπόστασιϛ in the New Testament based on the conceptual history provides the very ground for the interpretation of the text itself and a decisive contribution to the whole history of Christian doctrine.

So Great a Salvation: A Dialogue on the Atonement in Hebrews

So Great a Salvation: A Dialogue on the Atonement in Hebrews

“What is Man?” An Argument for the Christological Reading of Psalm 8 in Hebrews 2

Abstract Whether the author of Hebrews interpreted LXX Ps 8,5–7 as referring to humanity (the anthropological interpretation) or Christ (the Christological interpretation) has been widely debated. This essay strengthens the case for the Christological interpretation. After discussing the connections between Hebr 1,1–13 and 2,5–9, the article focuses on the citation and interpretation of LXX Ps 8,5–7 in Hebr 2,6–9. I contend that the author identified a three stage pattern in the psalm which he sees replicated in Jesus’ life. The next stage of the argument shows how in 2,10–18 the author only applies two stages to the lives of believers. Believers do not complete the third stage which indicates that, for the author of Hebrews, the psalm is first about Jesus and then applicable to humanity.

The Temple in Early Christianity: Experiencing the Sacred by Eyal Regev

Reviewed by: The Temple in Early Christianity: Experiencing the Sacred by Eyal Regev Margaret Barker eyal regev, The Temple in Early Christianity: Experiencing the Sacred (AYBRL; New Haven: Yale University Press, 2019). Pp. xiii + 480. $65. “This book discusses the Temple, its meaning and function, and how it was viewed by the early Christians” (p. 2). This how Eyal Regev describes his book, and he begins with the assumption that he is exploring “the creation of a new belief system in first century Judaea” (p. ix). He considers each area of the NT in turn: Jesus himself, Paul’s letters, Mark, Q and Matthew, Luke-Acts, the Gospel of John, the Book of Revelation, Hebrews, and then some thoughts relating to Judaism. In each section he takes “temple” passages and surveys the work of a number of NT scholars, most of a Protestant or post-Protestant persuasion. He offers his own evaluation of their work, making clear that so much has been written on the subject that he has chosen only information that he deems relevant (p. 3). The “cleansing of the temple” is the first major exploration. If the church saw itself as the new spiritual temple (1 Pet 2:4–8), why was Jesus angry? After surveying the many explanations offered by scholars, R. concludes that Jesus was angry at the money used in the temple: “Jesus protests neither against the Temple itself, nor the priests, but against the unrighteous activity that employs or generates corrupted money” (p. 33). He then considers Jesus’s trial, and the accusation that Jesus said he would destroy the temple and rebuild it (Mark 14:58–62), concluding that the account is probably inauthentic: “The idea that the Messiah will first destroy the temple before he rebuilds it is, to say the least, unfounded and strange” (p. 39). He supports this by saying that one has to distinguish between rebuilding Jerusalem and rebuilding the temple, as in, for example, 1 Enoch 90:28–29. R. has a similar argument for the parable of the tenants of the vineyard (Mark 12:1–12), which he says is about the temple authorities, not about the temple (p. 112); and the prophecy of destruction (Mark 13:2) was also about the city and not the temple (p. 115). Regev sees the temple in a good light and finds that the Gospel writers agree with him: Matthew is favorable toward the temple; Mark has a positive attitude; and John uses the temple as an explanatory model for understanding Jesus. R.’s observations about Luke are interesting: Luke shows that the temple belongs to Christians as well as Jews and has a favorable attitude toward the priests (pp. 173–74). The section on Hebrews illustrates well the difficulties of R.’s task with respect to Jesus as the great high priest, the role of Melchizedek, and the nature of the atonement sacrifice. R. notes that Hebrews does not mention the temple, only the tabernacle, and he argues that the author of Hebrews uses a variety of arguments for the high priesthood of Jesus, suggesting that “this is a new idea for his readers” (p. 256). He concludes that Hebrews’ christology “is not a direct continuation of the earliest understanding of Jesus’ death and resurrection. Jesus’ high priesthood does not explain his crucifixion and death.” Jesus’s death and resurrection were interpreted in cultic terms, and the author drew on various external traditions about a high priest serving in heaven (p. 263). How do we know what constituted “external traditions” for the first Christians? Presumably there must have been such traditions if the Christians were creating something new. Regev seems overly influenced by the residual sola scriptura of his largely Protestant sources, and he uses “ransom” rather often in the context of the death of Jesus. R. then develops his ideas about sacrifice in Hebrews and shows how Jesus’s self-sacrifice differs from the sacrificial system of the Pentateuch, “which assumes that humans will always [End Page 522] commit sin, making the cult repetitive” (p. 269). He draws important conclusions: “In Hebrews the priestly system continues in a new and better format when it serves as the...

"Engkaulah Imam Selama-lamanya menurut Melkisedek"

Letter to the Hebrews is one of the most difficult and, at the same time, intriguing writings in the New Testament. Its author is responding to a particular crisis of the christian community. His theology is based on the basic christian teachings but then is developed as a response to the congregation’s need. One of his original ideas is the high priestly of Christ. It is significant because Jesus did not come from the line of the High Priests of Israel. This paper intends to understand why the author of Hebrews presents Jesus Christ as a High Priest according to Melchizedek and to see the significance of this Christology in responding to the current crisis.

Philip Church. Hebrews and the Temple: Attitudes to the Temple in Second Temple Judaism and in Hebrews. Supplements to Novum Testamentum 171. Leiden: Brill, 2017. 615 pp.

Reviewed by: Hebrews and the Temple: Attitudes to the Temple in Second Temple Judaism and in Hebrews by Philip Church Daniel L. Smith Philip Church. Hebrews and the Temple: Attitudes to the Temple in Second Temple Judaism and in Hebrews. Supplements to Novum Testamentum 171. Leiden: Brill, 2017. 615 pp. doi:10.1017/S0364009420000185 The Epistle to the Hebrews might seem an odd focus for a monograph on "attitudes to the Temple." After all, there is no explicit mention of the Jerusalem Temple in all of Hebrews, and the one mention of Jerusalem is modified by the descriptor "heavenly" (12:22). While the wilderness tabernacle appears, along with Moses (e.g., in 8:5), the author of Hebrews nowhere refers to Solomon, Zerubbabel, or Herod. Undaunted, Philip Church sets out to address the "temple symbolism" in Hebrews; he is convinced that the Jerusalem Temple "lies just beneath the surface" of the text at hand (16). Like the author of Hebrews, however, Church fixes his attention on things heavenly. His main claim hinges on the exegesis of a controversial verse, Hebrews 8:5, which many scholars have understood to describe the wilderness tabernacle as a mere "copy and shadow" of the heavenly sanctuary. Instead, Church proposes that the wilderness tabernacle, Solomon's Temple, and the Second Temple—which he believes was still standing at the time when Hebrews was composed—all "prefigured the heavenly temple, which is to be understood as the eschatological dwelling of God with his people" (433). It is the "heavenly temple" that constitutes the ultimate telos of Church's investigation, which will canvas ancient views of sanctuaries both terrestrial and celestial. [End Page 422] This important contribution is a "revised and abbreviated" version of the author's dissertation (ix), written at the University of Otago under the supervision of James Harding and Chris Marshall. The introductory chapter starts off on a worrisome note, when Church announces that this treatment of "temple symbolism" will "use the terms 'symbol/symbolism' and 'metaphor' more or less interchangeably, depending on the context" (5 n. 14). Such a carefree approach to terms so foundational to the study does little to inspire confidence in the reader; fortunately, Church proves to be much more responsible and careful in the chapters that follow. Church divides his work into two parts. Part 1 surveys "Attitudes to the Temple in the Literature of Second Temple Judaism," classifying this literature into four categories. Texts that manifest a positive view of the Temple, from Sirach to the Letter of Aristeas to 2 Enoch, are gathered in the second chapter, entitled "Temple Affirmed." Chapter 3 collects relevant passages from the Dead Sea Scrolls under the heading "Temple Rejected," and the fourth chapter, "Temple Contested," characterizes 1 Enoch, Jubilees, the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, and the Testament of Moses as texts reflecting "dissatisfaction" with the Temple. Chapter 5 rounds out the first part with a treatment of texts that respond to the destruction of the Second Temple, including 4 Ezra, the Sibylline Oracles (books 4 and 5), and Josephus. In these chapters, Church has compiled a valuable resource for scholars of Second Temple Judaism, as he assembles not only direct references to the Jerusalem Temple, but also a wider range of texts that include related imagery and language —hence, the broad label of "temple symbolism." Categorizing, though a useful task, often flattens out ambiguities and complexities that are worth preserving. This project is no exception. For example, Church acknowledges that 1 Enoch is a "composite document" (145), yet he files the whole text under the label "Temple Contested." The Animal Apocalypse (1 Enoch 85–90) supports this classification, as it describes the rebuilding of a temple (or "high tower") that is furnished with unclean bread and that stands among those who are "blinded" (1 Enoch 89:73–74). However, the Book of Watchers (1–36) is likewise said to "imply some critique of the temple and its priesthood" (146), even though the heavenly visions and cosmic travels of the antediluvian Enoch appear to be more concerned with a heavenly sanctuary than with the Jerusalem Temple. Should silence be so easily equated with critique? If these two texts were not transmitted...

The Rhetoric of Empathy in Hebrews

Abstract This study examines how the author of Hebrews uses the motif of empathy to achieve his rhetorical goals and it demonstrates that, in line with the use of exemplars and pathos in Greco-Roman and Jewish rhetoric, the author not only cites exemplars of empathy for emulation, he also arouses his audience’s empathy as a catalyst to induce them to help fellow believers who are suffering due to their faith in Christ. These rhetorical effects are key to not only maintaining the individual’s faithfulness to God, but also creating community support for maintaining each other’s faithfulness to God when facing persecution.

Listen, Understand, Obey: Essays on Hebrews in Honor of Gareth Lee Cockerill ed. by Caleb T. Friedman

Reviewed by: Listen, Understand, Obey: Essays on Hebrews in Honor of Gareth Lee Cockerill ed. by Caleb T. Friedeman Jason Whitlark Caleb T. Friedeman (ed.), Listen, Understand, Obey: Essays on Hebrews in Honor of Gareth Lee Cockerill (Eugene, OR: Pickwick, 2017). Pp. xx + 187. $25. This volume is a collection essays published in celebration of Gareth Cockerill’s scholarship and his ministry for over thirty years at Wesley Biblical Seminary. Over the course of his career, Professor Cockerill has made several contributions to the study of the Letter to the Hebrews, culminating in his substantial 2012 commentary on Hebrews in the New International Commentary of the New Testament series. Many of the contributors are from the Wesleyan tradition. The nine essays are grouped around three headings. Essays 1–4 focus on the interpretation of Hebrews proper: Rick Boyd, “The Use of Psalm 8 in Hebrews”; Scott D. Mackie, “‘Let Us Draw Near . . . But Not Too Near’: A Critique of the Attempted Distinction between ‘Drawing Near’ and ‘Entering’ in Hebrews’ Entry Exhortations”; Matt O’Reilly, “Rest Now or Not Yet? Temporal Aspects of Social Identity in Hebrews 3:7–4:11”; Jon C. Laansma, “The Living and Active Word of God: A Theological Reading of Hebrews.” Essays 5–7 examine topics in Hebrews in conversation with other [End Page 164] NT texts: Caleb T. Friedman, “‘You Are My Son’: Climactic Revelation in the Son of God in Mark and Hebrews”; Amy L. Peeler, “If Son, Then Priest: The Filial Foundation of Ordination in Hebrews and Other New Testament Texts”; Carey B. Vinzant, “Preexistence, Kenosis, and Exaltation in Hebrews, John, and Paul: Distinctive Explications of a Common Underlying Narrative.” Essays 8–9 consider Hebrews in light of both systematic and historical theology: Thomas H. McCall, “‘Son Though He Was, He Learned Obedience’: The Submission of Christ in Theological Perspective (in Dialogue with Thomas Aquinas and Karl Barth)”; and Christopher T. Bounds, “Early Methodist Theology in the Book of Hebrews.” I will be able only to highlight representatives from each of these groups. From the first group, Mackie examines whether there is a distinction between the use of proserchomai and eiserchomai in Hebrews. Proserchomai is used with reference to the believers’ approach to God, while eiserchomai is applied to Christ’s entry into the heavenly realm. Mackie argues that there is no distinction and that behind the author’s language is a mystical experiential reality of the community. He especially points to Heb 6:18–20, where the community’s entry mirrors Jesus’s “full entry” and “represents a final nail in the alleged distinction” between the community’s approach and Jesus’s entry (p. 33). Mackie is certainly right to emphasize that the exhortation to approach God has an experiential reality behind it. Even so, there still seem to be good grounds for not blurring the distinction between proserchomai and eiserchomai in Hebrews. In Heb 6:18–20, there remains a distinction between Christ’s entry on the community’s behalf as their forerunner and the hope the faithful have of realizing Jesus’s own perfection. Mackie’s discussion, as well as others in this volume, helpfully invites a renewed consideration of what the author of Hebrews understands as the “now and not yet” in his eschatological perspective. From the second group of essays, Peeler examines the connection between sonship and priesthood in Hebrews, Paul, 1 Peter, and Revelation. Her basic thesis is that sacramental ministry is a birthright predicated on belonging to the right family. Thus, all believers are given priesthood and ministry by virtue of their inclusion in God’s family through Jesus. Peeler argues that sonship is granted on the basis of Christ’s power or authority in Revelation, whereas Paul, 1 Peter, and Hebrews ground sonship in God’s indwelling Spirit (pp. 105–6). One wonders if the basis of sonship is not fundamentally grounded in God’s election or choice similar to fathers choosing sons for inheritances in the ancient Mediterranean world. Such ideas can be found in Rom 8:29; 1 Pet 1:2; and possibly Heb 3:2. Peeler goes on to ask practically what justification there is for the special ordination of some if...

Melchizedek through the eyes of the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews

The article intends to study the person of Melchizedek as described in the Epistle of Hebrews. It provides an overview of sources who have engaged with this biblical hero and interpretations that exist on his personality. It has been shown that there are many varied opinions regarding Melchizedek. The article attempts yet again, following closely the author of the Epistle, to unravel the secret of this person. The research is based on the hermeneutic-exegetical method. It is shown how, step-by-step, the author of Hebrews guides the reader in the disclosure of the identity of Melchizedek, which undeniably has a serious impact on the thinking of his first and of contemporary readers. The article starts with a brief introduction to the Epistle followed by a description of the historical background of the first century. It is shown that the Epistle in a narrative style was written either during the period of persecution of Christians, or just preceding it. Apparently, difficult times affected the faith of the members of the community. Some of them had cooled off in their faith, some had departed from Christ, some had fallen into sin, some may have again returned to the Jewish system of values. In the Epistle, the author tries to draw the attention of community members again to Christ. He shows Christ’s superiority over the prophets, the angels, over Abraham, Moses, and Aaron as well as over the Old Testament priestly system of temple service. The author demonstrates the divinity of Jesus Christ, talks about the purposelessness, meaninglessness and even the danger of life without Him and calls for a return to faith in Him. In his hermeneutical-exegetical study of the Old Testament narratives of Melchizedek in Genesis 14:18-20 and Ps.110:4, the author of the Epistle uses traditional rabbinic methods of interpretation of Scripture acceptable in his time. He shows that Melchizedek is not only a historical person, but also an eschatological one. He is not only a prototype of the priest of the future, not just a prototype of the Messiah. He actually is the Messiah, the Son of God. The person of Melchizedek was touched on by the author of the Epistle not only in order to show His divinity and identity with Christ, but also to show that God the Father acted through Him in the Old Testament and also continues to do so in the New Testament. Jesus is a faithful High Priest.

Vermittelte Gegenwart: Konzeptionen der Gottespräsenz von der Zeit des Zweiten Tempels bis Anfang des 2. Jahrhunderts n. Chr

Vermittelte Gegenwart: Konzeptionen der Gottespräsenz von der Zeit des Zweiten Tempels bis Anfang des 2. Jahrhunderts n. Chr

Uriah Kfir. A Matter of Geography: A New Perspective on Medieval Hebrew Poetry. Leiden: Brill, 2018. 164 pp.

Reviewed by: A Matter of Geography: A New Perspective on Medieval Hebrew Poetry by Uriah Kfir Jonathan Decter Uriah Kfir. A Matter of Geography: A New Perspective on Medieval Hebrew Poetry. Leiden: Brill, 2018. 164 pp. doi:10.1017/S0364009419000187 "The Hidden Praises of Time Have I Seen" is a panegyric by a poet named Pinḥas, a rival of the more famous Todros Halevi Abulafia (1247–d. after 1298), in honor of Don Çag Yiẓḥak ben Ẓadok, a courtier in the service of Alfonso X of Castile. The poem opens with a fictional poetic speaker recounting a "prophetic" vision, a gathering in which poets come from all directions to boast over their specific locales. After the representatives of the East, North, and South speak, they call for the prince of the West, but no one answers until Pinḥas himself steps forth and boasts of its qualities. The participants "whisper to one another about [End Page 214] the one for whom kingship is fitting" until Time (i.e., Fate) interjects, "What have I to do with North, East, and South? The West have I acquired! / Behold, my seal and its cord [Genesis 38:18] are yours; the mark of dominion have I set upon your beloved's forehead." The "beloved," of course, refers to the addressee of the poem, Don Çag Yiẓḥak ben Ẓadok. Pinḥas's masterful poem participates in a discourse of post-Andalusian Hebrew poetry that centered on geography, a subject of cultural import after the period of the great Hebrew poets of al-Andalus (Samuel ha-Nagid, Solomon ibn Gabirol, Judah Halevi, etc.) had come to a close. Clearly for Pinḥas, the West (which meant Spain from a Mediterranean perspective) could claim superiority over other regions, and here the claims of poetic accomplishment and political legitimacy dovetail poignantly. The recent book by Uriah Kfir, based on a Hebrew doctoral dissertation (Tel Aviv University), provides an in-depth view of the fascinating dynamics of geographic debate in Andalusian and post-Andalusian Hebrew literature. (The dissertation also offers critical editions of many of the texts discussed.) The approach departs from existing scholarship in that previous scholars (with a few exceptions) have thought more in terms of literary development across geography rather than the way in which geography itself functions as a topic within medieval Hebrew literature. Rather than focusing on the degree to which post-Andalusian poets depended on, selectively absorbed, or departed from Andalusian literary conventions, Kfir investigates the cultural tensions of place, wherein al-Andalus and later Christian Iberia functioned as a "center" with a venerated literary tradition, while other locales—including Italy, Provence, Egypt, and Iraq—functioned as its "periphery." In approaching the corpus in this way, Kfir reads through prisms that have been employed fruitfully in postcolonial theory in Europe and the United States, including within the field of modern Hebrew literature. The book is divided into two main sections, the first of which deals with the Iberian "center" from the eleventh through the thirteenth centuries. Here Kfir discerns a four-part process ("distinction, amplification, promotion, and preservation") by which the hegemonic claims of the earliest generations of Andalusian poets are reproduced by authors of Christian Iberia for the retention of hegemony in the face of rising Hebrew centers in Provence and the Islamic East. Kfir first shows how the great poets of what has been termed the Golden Age of Hebrew poetry in al-Andalus promoted the primacy of the Jewish culture of the Islamic West. Thus Samuel ha-Nagid asserted not only his literary prowess but also his independence from Hai Gaon of Baghdad in legal matters. Andalusian Jews represented themselves as the descendants of Jerusalem exiles, hence claimants of pure Hebrew speech, and also as the inheritors of Eastern geonic authority. Hebrew authors of Christian Iberia, though they departed from their predecessors in significant ways, could make the case for continuing the Andalusian tradition most easily and represent their superiority not as a matter of mere emulation but rather as one of innate ability. The second part of the book presents a series of case studies of authors from Iraq, Egypt, Italy, and Provence during the thirteenth...

A Matter of Geography: A New Perspective on Medieval Hebrew Poetry by Uriah Kfir

Reviewed by: A Matter of Geography: A New Perspective on Medieval Hebrew Poetry by Uriah Kfir Jonathan Decter Uriah Kfir. A Matter of Geography: A New Perspective on Medieval Hebrew Poetry. Leiden: Brill, 2018. 164 pp. doi:10.1017/S0364009419000187 "The Hidden Praises of Time Have I Seen" is a panegyric by a poet named Pinḥas, a rival of the more famous Todros Halevi Abulafia (1247–d. after 1298), in honor of Don Çag Yiẓḥak ben Ẓadok, a courtier in the service of Alfonso X of Castile. The poem opens with a fictional poetic speaker recounting a "prophetic" vision, a gathering in which poets come from all directions to boast over their specific locales. After the representatives of the East, North, and South speak, they call for the prince of the West, but no one answers until Pinḥas himself steps forth and boasts of its qualities. The participants "whisper to one another about [End Page 214] the one for whom kingship is fitting" until Time (i.e., Fate) interjects, "What have I to do with North, East, and South? The West have I acquired! / Behold, my seal and its cord [Genesis 38:18] are yours; the mark of dominion have I set upon your beloved's forehead." The "beloved," of course, refers to the addressee of the poem, Don Çag Yiẓḥak ben Ẓadok. Pinḥas's masterful poem participates in a discourse of post-Andalusian Hebrew poetry that centered on geography, a subject of cultural import after the period of the great Hebrew poets of al-Andalus (Samuel ha-Nagid, Solomon ibn Gabirol, Judah Halevi, etc.) had come to a close. Clearly for Pinḥas, the West (which meant Spain from a Mediterranean perspective) could claim superiority over other regions, and here the claims of poetic accomplishment and political legitimacy dovetail poignantly. The recent book by Uriah Kfir, based on a Hebrew doctoral dissertation (Tel Aviv University), provides an in-depth view of the fascinating dynamics of geographic debate in Andalusian and post-Andalusian Hebrew literature. (The dissertation also offers critical editions of many of the texts discussed.) The approach departs from existing scholarship in that previous scholars (with a few exceptions) have thought more in terms of literary development across geography rather than the way in which geography itself functions as a topic within medieval Hebrew literature. Rather than focusing on the degree to which post-Andalusian poets depended on, selectively absorbed, or departed from Andalusian literary conventions, Kfir investigates the cultural tensions of place, wherein al-Andalus and later Christian Iberia functioned as a "center" with a venerated literary tradition, while other locales—including Italy, Provence, Egypt, and Iraq—functioned as its "periphery." In approaching the corpus in this way, Kfir reads through prisms that have been employed fruitfully in postcolonial theory in Europe and the United States, including within the field of modern Hebrew literature. The book is divided into two main sections, the first of which deals with the Iberian "center" from the eleventh through the thirteenth centuries. Here Kfir discerns a four-part process ("distinction, amplification, promotion, and preservation") by which the hegemonic claims of the earliest generations of Andalusian poets are reproduced by authors of Christian Iberia for the retention of hegemony in the face of rising Hebrew centers in Provence and the Islamic East. Kfir first shows how the great poets of what has been termed the Golden Age of Hebrew poetry in al-Andalus promoted the primacy of the Jewish culture of the Islamic West. Thus Samuel ha-Nagid asserted not only his literary prowess but also his independence from Hai Gaon of Baghdad in legal matters. Andalusian Jews represented themselves as the descendants of Jerusalem exiles, hence claimants of pure Hebrew speech, and also as the inheritors of Eastern geonic authority. Hebrew authors of Christian Iberia, though they departed from their predecessors in significant ways, could make the case for continuing the Andalusian tradition most easily and represent their superiority not as a matter of mere emulation but rather as one of innate ability. The second part of the book presents a series of case studies of authors from Iraq, Egypt, Italy, and Provence during the thirteenth...

Suffering in the Face of Death: The Epistle to the Hebrews and Its Context of Situation by Bryan R. Dyer

Reviewed by: Suffering in the Face of Death: The Epistle to the Hebrews and Its Context of Situationby Bryan R. Dyer Benjamin Rojas Yauri Dyer, Bryan R. 2017. Suffering in the Face of Death: The Epistle to the Hebrews and Its Context of Situation. The Library of New Testament Studies568. London and New York: Bloomsbury T&T Clark. Hardback. ISBN 978-0567672353. Pp. 224. $117. Bryan R. Dyer is acquisitions editor at Baker Press, adjunct professor of religion at Calvin College and co-editor of the publications The Bible and Social Justice(2015) and Paul and Ancient Rhetoric(2016). He completed his Ph.D. at McMaster Divinity College under the guidance of Cynthia L. Westfall and Stanley E. Porter. This book is an edited revision of that thesis. The book starts with a word of recognition that provides information about all the contributors, as well as the stages through which the book passed before its publication. A very short introduction follows, where Dyer addresses the main topic of his book, which, in his words, is to identify and analyse "the wealth of terms and references to suffering and death in Hebrews" (2). [End Page 209] Chapter one is titled "Previous Studies on the Topics of Suffering and Death in Hebrews." It comprises fifteen pages in which Dyer considers ten authors, who, in some way, have dealt with the topic under discussion. His conclusion, after this literature review, is that "the author of Hebrews wrote to an audience presently facing some form of suffering and felt a substantial fear that death was likely on the horizon" (20). It is noteworthy that the book concludes with basically similar expressions: "The audience was experiencing actual suffering and were being confronted with the reality of their deaths" (181). It follows that at least in this respect the book serves to confirm the conclusions of various previous authors, even though Dyer treats the topic in a more comprehensive and systematic way. Chapter two is titled "History of Research on the Situation Addressed in Hebrews." It consists of twenty-six pages in which Dyer considers the situation addressed in Hebrews from different perspectives. According to Dyer, the initial audience of Hebrews could be "a group of Jewish Christians who were on the verge of relapsing to Judaism" (25) or perhaps a group of gentile Christians who were reverting to paganism. Essene Christians and former Qumran members have also been proposed. Alternatively, Dyer lists a number of social conditions that could be present in any community as possibly being representative of the situation in Hebrews. These situations are reflected in the letter's views of a "realized eschatology," of a response to the destruction of the temple, of loss of honour and social status and of persecution. However, it is important to note that there is no clear separation between communities, social conditions and philosophical conditions in the book. According to Dyer, each of the proposed situations address some element present in the text of Hebrews, which means that the author of Hebrews "seems to be addressing numerous issues in his epistle," which "is not limited to addressing just one particular concern." What seems an oversight in the book is that it does not grapple with the proposal made by Alexander Nairne, who argues that "the epistle is better understood as a theological treatise than a letter addressing a specific situation" (paraphrase of Nairne's argument in Dyer, 22). Dyer ends this chapter by asserting that it "is difficult to identify with any certainty the reality of the audience" (46), which means that perhaps there was not one specific audience, but rather an unspecified audience constituted by different populations, who grappled with some or all of the problems listed in the chapter. Chapter three is titled "Methodology: Moving from a Text to its Context." It comprises twenty-eight pages. In Dyer's own words, "the purpose of this chapter is to present the groundwork for a study of suffering [End Page 210]and death in Hebrews." This seems to be an error, for, at the end of the first part of this chapter, Dyer writes: "With these concerns in mind, I present five linguistic principles...

Stammering Hebrew: Y.H. Brenner's Deferred Beginnings in the Novel &lt;em&gt;Me-Hathala&lt;/em&gt;

Abstract This article explores the representation of Hebrew speech in Hebrew literature during the first decades of the twentieth century by focusing attention on Yosef Hayim Brenner's novel, Me-hathala (From the Beginning). The novel, situated in a Jewish colony in Palestine, was written at a time when Hebrew was only emerging as a spoken vernacular and the text repeatedly engages the act of stammering. Drawing on current work in dysfluency studies, I demonstrate that such an attention to stammering was a tool employed by Hebrew authors to present an ambivalent relationship to the transforming language. Reading Brenner's novel, which mocks its protagonists’ ineloquent Hebrew, the article suggests that Brenner's literary poetics be considered as a poetics of stammering, which demonstrates an iterated enactment of transition and negotiates contradictory drives in the fantasy of a national and linguistic revival.

Reforming Melchizedek

Abstract This essay demonstrates the significant changes to the interpretation of passages in Hebrews about Melchizedek during the Reformation era. This comparison of the emphases in the medieval tradition with those of Protestant interpreters substantiates the gradual movement toward an increased interest in the literal-historical sense without entirely discarding a spiritual sense. It reveals continuity with explaining Melchizedek as a type of Christ and the diversity of explanations about Melchizedek’s identity, location, and purpose. And it establishes discontinuity with interpreters’ explanations for the way the author of Hebrews used Old Testament and about Melchizedek’s actions as a type of the Eucharist.

“A fearful thing to fall into the hands of the living God”: A study of fear in the Epistle to the Hebrews

Does the author of Hebrews seek to quell fear or create it? The answer to both seems to be yes. To better understand the argument as a coherent whole, however, readers must seek to understand how he makes these dual moves with fear and why. First, God acts to eliminate fear. Through the death and resurrection of the Son become High Priest, God destroyed the enslaving fear of death. The fear of death has been eliminated, but another more terrifying fear remains: the fear of departing from God. The author of Hebrews views this departure as a possibility, and so, he warns his community about it in the starkest terms possible. Without muting that warning, I want to affirm with equal intensity the answers the author provides to that fear. First, he asks something of them, namely to pay attention, persevere, and run with endurance. Second, he reminds them of the community around them that will aid their endurance. Finally, he focuses on the priesthood of Christ. His one-time sacrifice as well as his living intercession give aid. The balance between assurance and warning resides in this: the author does not want them to presume upon the grace of God, but it is God, the just, holy, as well as faithful and merciful to whom he entrusts them.

The Writings: Job–Sirach

The WritingsJob–Sirach Christopher T. Begg, Paul R. Redditt, John Thomas Willis, William J. Urbrock, and Rory K. Pitstick 1880. [Wisdom Literature; Egyptian Literature] Michael V. Fox, “Gauging Egyptian Influences on Biblical Literature,” Subtle Citation, 229–41 [see #2037]. My main role in the panel [from which this article and others in the above collective derive] was to address the questions presented by the editor [Ziony Zevit]: “When you intuit that there is or may be an Egyptian ‘connection’ for a particular biblical text, how do you determine the nature of the connection? What are you looking for?” In the following, I concentrate on Wisdom Literature, the genre for which Egyptian parallels have been adduced most extensively, and reflect on some of the claims of Egyptian dependence I have either asserted or denied—or both—in earlier publications. I summarize the arguments for the literary connections but leave much out, because my purpose is to probe the type of reasoning used and its validity . . . [p. 230, adapted]. In conclusion, in answer to Zevit’s question to the panel, “What are you looking for,” I’d answer: A strong congruity between source and receptor in specific and independent variables, both in form and content, with unpredictable similarities unique to the texts in question, together with a verifiable path of geographical and temporal transmission. But insisting that all these criteria be met would obscure some real and significant connections between Israel and its environment. It is often legitimate to accept a partial case. I try to calibrate the claims made to the strength of the evidence, and then to use the proposed parallels with vigor but not mania (p. 239, adapted).—C.T.B. [End Page 655] 1881. [Job; Mesopotamian Literature] Edward L. Greenstein, “The Book of Job and Mesopotamian Literature: How Many Degrees of Separation?” Subtle Citation, 143–58 [see #2037]. The Book of Job, as is well known, belongs to an ANE literary tradition of texts about pious sufferers. . . . Perhaps the texts closest in content to Job are the two Akkadian poems, “Let Me Praise the Lord of Wisdom” . . . and the so-called “Babylonian Theodicy.” The former was already known in an abbreviated form among the Syro-Canaanite scribes of the 2nd millennium b.c.e. . . . However, in spite of many similarities between these Akkadian texts and Job . . . one would be hard pressed to establish a direct dependency.… By contrast, the narrative framework of Job . . . relates a tale of testing that has no parallel in Mesopotamian literature or, as far as I know, in ANE literature in general. . . . Accordingly, the present discussion focuses exclusively on the poetic core of the Book of Job (pp. 143–45). The poetry of Job makes use of a variety of literary elements that are known from Mesopotamian literature from diverse periods. We find the theme of theodicy and the topos of the complaining pious sufferer. We find the motif of the womb that is figured like a barred door and of semi-mythological creatures made of metal, stone, and other components. I have also joined earlier scholars in discerning a possible dependence of Job on a passage from Enūma elish tablet IV. In this last instance, I based my contention on the presence of a linguistic link between the Babylonian source and Job. When applying the standard of identifying shared words and phrases, one may suggest that the poet of Job knew some Babylonian language and may have had a certain acquaintance with some Babylonian literature as well. The more one can establish a dependence on the level of language the better one can hypothesize a familiarity with Mesopotamian literature on the part of the author of Job in a more general way. Even so, I have not yet found a sure basis for claiming a direct knowledge of Mesopotamian pious sufferer texts by Job’s author. My judgment then is that ancient Hebrew authors became familiar with such texts, as they did with many other types of wisdom literature, via local sources available to them (p. 154, adapted).—C.T.B. 1882. [Job; F. Dostoyevsky, The Brothers Karamazov] George Pattison, “Hiob als Inter-text: Dostojewskis...

THE MACCABEAN LITERATURE AND HEBREWS: SOME INTERTEXTUAL OBSERVATIONS

Several common motifs and linguistic similarities between the books of the Maccabees and the book of Hebrews were noted in the past by scholars in random remarks and ad hoc statements. These relations and similarities deserve further investigation. It is therefore the intention of this paper to compare the Maccabean literature and Hebrews with each other in order to present a brief synopsis of a few selected motifs. Some prominent common motifs that will receive attention include the Abrahamic promise and the Aqedah, priests with royal functions, faith heroes and endurance, instruction of the Scriptures, and the Canticum Mosis. It is hoped that this comparison of common motifs will result in first a closer understanding of whether the unknown author of Hebrews was familiar with the books of the Maccabees, and secondly a better understanding of the provenance of Hebrews in particular

Hebrews 5:7 as the cry of the Davidic sufferer

This article proposes a better source for the Son’s cry in Hebrews 5:7. It begins by surveying sources previous scholars have identified, including Jesus’ cry in Gethsemane and Golgotha, several Psalms, and the Maccabean martyr literature. It is then argued that these background sources for the language are insufficient. Instead the author of Hebrews has an entire motif from the Psalter as his informing source: the Davidic figure that cries out in trust to be delivered from a death-like experience. Firstly, the motif of the Davidic righteous suffering in the LXX Psalms is demonstrated. Secondly, Hebrews’ use of the Messianic royal figure is demonstrated and thirdly, Hebrews 5:7 as a portrait of the Christ who cries out for deliverance is demonstrated. Thus, Hebrews 5:7 sees the Son as the Davidic king who is the true representative human exercising trust in YHWH, bringing to fulfilment the theme from various Psalms.

Ethnic reasoning in social identity of Hebrews: A social-scientific study

Ethnicity reasoning offers one way of looking at social identity in the letter to the Hebrews. The context of socio-economic abuse and hardships of the audience creates a situation in which ethnicity in social identity becomes an important issue for the author of Hebrews to address. This article is a social-scientific study which explores how the author establishes the ethnic identity of the audience as people of God. While this ethnic identity indicates the more privileged position the readers occupy in relation to the benefits of God accessible to them, it also provides the author with the appropriate social institutions and scripts by which his demand for appropriate response to God and the Christian group becomes appreciable and compelling. The article involves the definition of social-scientific criticism, ethnicity and social identity, and discusses the social context of the letter to the Hebrews. It then explains how some social scripts within specific ethnic institutions give meaning to the demands the author makes from his readers.