Australian Wind Research Articles

Building code economic performance under variable wind risk

As losses from natural disasters steadily increase, communities search for ways to increase resilience. Northern Australia strengthened their wind codes in 1980 after Tropical Cyclone Tracy devastated Darwin and recommendations from engineers in Queensland, Australia suggest further enhancements. Florida, United States Of America (US) also enacted stronger building codes after the devastation brought by Hurricane Andrew as a way to limit future windstorm losses. This study uses the case study of Florida to develop understanding of the economic effectiveness of wind-enhanced building codes across regions of varying wind risk. Realized insured loss data are used to examine the effect of the Florida Building Code (FBC) on windstorm losses. Further, we analyze the effectiveness of the FBC in different regions within the state. We find that overall the FBC passes a benefit/cost test with the exception of the use of a higher cost option for impact protection. Our results suggest that wind code changes in other regions, such as those recommended for the Australian wind code, would also be cost-effective. Finally, potential changes in wind speed from hurricanes due to climate change increase the cost-effectiveness of actions that mitigate the damage from wind storms.

The resilience of Australian wind energy to climate change

The Paris Agreement limits global average temperature rise to 2 °C and commits to pursuing efforts in limiting warming to 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels. This will require rapid reductions in the emissions of greenhouse gases and the eventual decarbonisation of the global economy. Wind energy is an established technology to help achieve emissions reductions, with a cumulative global installed capacity of ~486 GW (2016). Focusing on Australia, we assess the future economic viability of wind energy using a 12-member ensemble of high-resolution regional climate simulations forced by Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP) output. We examine both near future (around 2030) and far future (around 2070) changes. Extractable wind power changes vary across the continent, though the most spatially coherent change is a small but significant decrease across southern regions. The cost of future wind energy generation, measured via the Levelised Cost of Energy (LCOE), increases negligibly in the future in regions with significant existing installed capacity. Technological developments in wind energy generation more than compensate for projected small reductions in wind, decreasing the LCOE by around 30%. These developments ensure viability for existing wind farms, and enhance the economic viability of proposed wind farms in Western Australian and Tasmania. Wind energy is therefore a resilient source of electricity over most of Australia and technological innovation entering the market will open new regions for energy production in the future.

Detection of dry season anomaly using radiosonde data during intensive observation period (IOP) in 2017

In the period between July - August 2017, Indonesia experiences drought which was caused by The Australian Monsoon wind. Radiosonde data obtained from launches conducted at the Palembang Meteorological Station during the IOP of 17 July - 16 August 2017 and those from cities that represents monsoon area (Pangkalpinang, Jakarta, and Surabaya) were also added to analyze the connection between Australian monsoon and precipitation in Indonesia. During IOP, the Australian Monsoon Index (AUSMI) is weaker than during normal conditions. Australian Monsoon index is normally around 6 m/s. Here, The Australian Monsoon Index chart shows a sinusoidal pattern in which during the peaks and troughs of the index there were drought anomalies in the aforementioned cities. In addition, medium to heavy rainfall also occurs during the Australian Monsoon index peaks and troughs. That conditions are affected by MJO and local influence. When MJO is a negative anomaly, AUSMI Index can be at peak or at the troughs. During the drought anomalies in all of the four cities, moisture profile at the surface to 6000-8000m is very wet (65-100%) with vertical wind profile dominated by the southeasterly-southerly direction.

Evaluating Community Engagement and Benefit-Sharing Practices in Australian Wind Farm Development

The wind industry is positioned to contribute significantly to a clean energy future, yet the level of community opposition has at times led to unviable projects. Social acceptance is crucial and can be improved in part through better practice community engagement and benefit-sharing. This case study provides a “snapshot” of current community engagement and benefit-sharing practices for Australian wind farms, with a particular emphasis on practices found to be enhancing positive social outcomes in communities. Five methods were used to gather views on effective engagement and benefit-sharing: a literature review, interviews and a survey of the wind industry, a Delphi panel, and a review of community engagement plans. The overarching finding was that each community engagement and benefit-sharing initiative should be tailored to a community’s context, needs and expectations as informed by community involvement. This requires moving away from a “one size fits all” approach. This case study is relevant to wind developers, energy regulators, local communities and renewable energy-focused non-government organizations. It is applicable beyond Australia to all contexts where wind farm development has encountered conflicted societal acceptance responses.

Numerical and experimental study of steel wire mesh and basalt fibre mesh strengthened structural insulated panel against projectile impact

Extreme wind events caused damages and losses around the world every year. Windborne debris impact might create opening on building envelop, which would lead to the increase in internal pressure and result in roof being lift up and wall collapse. Some standards including Australia Wind Loading Code (AS/NZS 1170:2:2011, 2011) put forward design criteria to protect structures against windborne debris impacts. Structural insulated panel with Oriented Strand Board skin and expanded polystyrene core has been increasingly used in the building industry. Its capacity was found insufficient to resist the windborne debris impact in cyclonic areas defined in the Australian Wind Loading Code. Therefore, such panels need be strengthened for their applications in construction in cyclonic areas. In this study, impact resistance capacities of seven structural insulated panels strengthened with steel wire mesh and basalt fibre mesh were experimentally and numerically investigated. The impact resistance capacities were identified by comparing the damage mode, residual velocity and unpenetrated length of projectile after impact. Experimental results clearly demonstrated the enhancement of the impact resistance capacities of panels strengthened with steel wire mesh and basalt fibre mesh. Finite element model was developed in LS-DYNA to simulate the dynamic response of the structural insulated panels under windborne debris impact. The accuracy of the numerical model was validated with the testing data.

Rapid land use change by coastal wind farm development: Australian policies, politics and planning

The siting of both onshore and offshore wind farms has caused controversy in a number of countries, particularly in Europe, which currently has the world’s largest array of offshore wind turbines. Like the rest of the world there has been a dramatic increase in wind farm development In Australia over the last two decades but none of this has occurred in the offshore environment. Australian wind farms are predominantly located onshore around the southern part of the continent where wind energy is high. This has specifically affected rural coasts where it has created planning and land use policy issues along with environmental impacts and associated public and political reaction. This paper examines the geographic spread, timing and concentration of Australian wind farms around the coast. It also examines the extent to which scientific knowledge on wind farm impacts is incorporated into different state and federal land use and environmental policy and legislative frameworks. The paper concludes that the rapidity in the expansion of the Australian wind energy sector has outpaced strategic land use planning resulting in a piece-meal and cumulative wind farm development on rural coasts.

Experimental and numerical study of basalt fibre cloth strengthened structural insulated panel under windborne debris impact

Strong wind causes damages and losses around the world. The windborne debris carried by strong wind might impact on building and create openings on the building envelop, which might threaten the occupants and cause further damages to the building. To address this issue, some wind loading codes including the Australian Wind Loading Code (AS/NZS 1170:2:2011) give design requirements. The resistance capacity of oriented strand board skins structural insulated panel was investigated and proved having low resistance to the projectile impact, and could not meet the impact resistance requirement for application in cyclonic region C and D defined in Australian Wind Loading Code. In this study, basalt fibre cloth is used to strengthen oriented strand board structural insulated panel to increase its capacity to resist windborne debris impact. This paper presents experimental and numerical study of structural insulated panel with or without basalt fibre cloth strengthening under windborne debris impact. Five specimens with different configurations were tested. The dynamic responses were quantitatively compared in terms of residual speed of debris after impact. The results indicate that basalt fibre cloth enhanced the resistance capacity of oriented strand board structural insulated panel. A numerical model is developed in LS-DYNA to simulate the debris impact. The testing results are used to verify the accuracy of the numerical model, which can be used in subsequent parametric studies.

Laboratory test and numerical study of structural insulated panel strengthened with glass fibre laminate against windborne debris impact

Cyclone and tornado as common nature disasters have caused devastating damages and losses around the world. In such events loose objects might be lifted and propelled by strong wind as the windborne debris, which is a potential hazard to the building facade because windborne debris impact may create openings on the building envelop, threaten the safety of occupants inside the building and cause further damages to the structure. Some wind loading codes e.g., the Australian Wind Loading Code (AS/NZS 1170:2:2011) specifies the design requirements to address this issue. On the other hand, structural insulated panel (SIP) has been increasingly used in building constructions owing to the advantages of thermal insulation and easy to build, but it is vulnerable to windborne debris impact owing to its insufficient impact resistance capacity. This disadvantage prevents the wide applications of SIP in regions with strong winds, such as the Cyclone region C and D defined in Australian Wind Loading Code. In this study, glass fibre laminate was used to strengthen SIP with OSB (Oriented Strand Board) skins to improve its capacity to resist windborne debris impact. One unstrengthened and six strengthened SIP panels were manufactured and tested by using a pneumatic cannon system. Two high speed cameras were used to capture failure modes and dynamic responses. The effectiveness of glass fibre laminate strengthening was examined and compared in terms of the residual velocity of the projectile. A numerical model was also developed to simulate the laboratory tests. The accuracy of the model was calibrated by the test results. The validated numerical model was then used to conduct more numerical simulations to obtain vulnerability curves of OSB skin SIP panels against windborne debris impact.

Experimental investigations of fabric material against projectile impacts

Air supported structures made of PVC coated polyester fabric materials have been used in industrial and commercial building constructions. If they are used in cyclonic regions, the structure envelop might be impacted by windborne debris. The windborne debris might perforate the fabric material, which not only results in total collapse of the structure, flying debris at high speed also imposes threats to people and facilities inside the structure. In this study, the penetration resistant capability of PVC coated polyester fabric material commonly used in air supported structures construction was tested by using a pneumatic cannon system. The impact loading from windborne debris equivalent to a timber projectile of 4kg mass as specified in the Australian Wind Loading Code (AS/NZS 1170.2:2011) was applied in the test. The failure and damage modes under various projectile impact scenarios were observed and compared. Its capability of resisting projectile impact was assessed. The performances of PVC coated polyester fabric material were examined quantitatively in terms of projectile residual velocity and energy absorption. The effects of various projectile velocity, impact location, fabric pretension and boundary condition on their penetration resistance performance were studied. The testing results will benefit construction designers involved in the fabric material applications in high wind speed area.

Impact of PV penetration level on the capacity value of South Australian wind farms

Renewable generations are growing fast and they are becoming the major generation technology in power systems. Amongst all renewables, wind and solar resources have the highest growth rate. However, fluctuation and uncertainty of these sources are the main barriers in their utilization and can affect reliability of power system. Therefore, these generators must be treated differently in adequacy studies and their reliability contribution should be evaluated. South Australia (SA) accounts for more than half of Australia's wind share and its solar capacity is rapidly increasing as well. Thus, not only the reliability benefit of wind is required to be investigated in this power system, but also the contribution of solar energy and its impacts should be analysed as well. The reliability benefit of wind and PV has been studied in the literature, but there is a need to evaluate their combined contribution in reality and investigate the influence of their correlations. Therefore, this paper evaluates the reliability contribution of wind and solar power in South Australia and the impact of solar energy on wind load carrying capability. State sampling Monte Carlo technique is utilized for reliability assessment and Fuzzy C-means clustering method is employed to create a multistep load model.

Olivebranches and idiot's guides: Frameworks for community engagement in Australian wind farm development

In Australia, renewable energy is under pressure in the context of a highly politicised debate about how to act on climate change. The recent repeal of an established carbon tax has seen the defunding of significant renewable energy initiatives and a controversial review of the national Renewable Energy Target is threatening key drivers for investment in renewable energy. The current regulatory focus on community ‘acceptance’ does not facilitate the active community support necessary to challenge this increasingly hostile policy context.This research considers current experiences of community engagement in wind farm governance in one Australian jurisdiction. Through documentary analysis and two qualitative case studies, it examines legal and non-legal requirements for community governance mechanisms and considers how these influence wind farm development in rural areas. Findings include a problematic reliance on procedural compliance in assessing wind farm consultation, domination by vested interests, and reduced expertise in community engagement at the time it is needed most. Recommendations include integration of best practice guidelines in current regulation; harmonisation of policy settings to ensure equity across energy sectors; and an evidence-based commitment to benefit sharing as a strategy for increasing community support of rural wind farm development.

Surface flow visualisation over forward facing steps with varying yaw angle

Many Australian wind farms are located near escarpments and cliffs where flow separation occurs. An absence of literature addressing the effect of wind direction over cliffs have motivated surface shear stress visualisations on forward facing steps at yaw angles between 0° and 50°. These visualisations have been conducted in the Monash University 450 kW wind tunnel. Mean reattachment lengths were measured and shown to vary as a function of the boundary layer thickness to step height ratio and the yaw angle. Vortices shed off the crest of the step induced surface shear stresses on the top surface of the step. The orientation of these shear stresses varied linearly with the yaw angle. Three-dimensional structures of different forms were also observed. At zero yaw angle the flow converged at points along the crest. At high yaw angles distinct sections of misaligned flow were observed downstream of the reattachment line, indicating a spatial periodicity in shedding.

A Study of Corrolink Structural Insulated Panel (SIP) to Windborne Debris Impacts

Structural insulated panel (SIP) is considered as a green panel in construction industry because of the low thermal conductivity of the sandwiched EPS core (i.e extended polystyrene). It is a lightweight composite structure and is widely used in commercial, industrial and residential buildings to construct the building envelop including roof and wall. The windborne debris driven by cyclone or hurricane usually imposes intensive localized impact on the structural panel, which might create opening to the structure. The opening on the building envelope might cause internal pressures increase and result in substantial damage to the building structures, such as roof lifting up and wall collapse. The Australian Wind Loading Code (version 2011) [1] requires structural panels to resist projectile debris impact at a velocity equal to 40% of the wind speed, which could be more than 40 m/s in the tropical area with the wind speed more than 100m/s. In this study, two kinds of SIP under projectile debris impact were investigated, i.e. “Corrolink” and “Double-corrolink” composite panels shown in Fig. 1. Laboratory tests were carried out by using pneumatic cannon testing system to investigate the dynamic response of composite panels subjected to wooden projectile impacts. The failure modes were observed. The structural dynamic responses were also examined quantitatively based on the deformation and strain time histories measured in the tests. The penetration resistance capacity of panels subjected to windborne debris impact was assessed.Fig. 1 Schematic diagrams (L) Corrolink panel; (R) Double-corrolink panel [2]

Numerical Study of Corrugated Metal Panels Subjected to Windborne Debris Impacts

Hurricane, typhoon and cyclone take place more and more often around the world with changing climate. Such nature disasters cause tremendous economic loss and casualty. Various kinds of windborne debris such as compact-like, plate-like and rod-like objects driven by hurricane usually imposes localized impact loading on the structure envelopes such as cladding, wall or roof, etc. The dominant opening in the envelope might cause serious damage to the structures, even collapse. To withstand the impact of such extreme event, the requirements on panel capacity to resist windborne debris impact has been presented in the Australian Wind Loading Code (2011) [1]. Corrugated metal panels are widely used as building envelop. In a previous study, laboratory tests have been carried out to investigate the performance of corrugated metal panels subjected to a 4kg wooden projectile by considering various impact locations, impact velocities and boundary conditions. In this study, numerical models were developed to simulate the responses of the corrugated metal panels subjected to wooden debris impacts by using commercial software LS-DYNA. The predicted data from the numerical simulations were compared with the experimental results. The validated numerical model can be used to conduct intensive numerical simulation to study the failure probabilities of corrugated structural panels subjected to windborne debris impacts.

Can the “Social Licence to Operate” Concept Enhance Engagement and Increase Acceptance of Renewable Energy? A Case Study of Wind Farms in Australia

Social licence to operate (SLO) is the ongoing acceptance or approval for a development that is granted by the local community and other stakeholders. From the current media and political attention on Australian wind farms, it appears that many specific wind farms, or indeed the industry as a whole, may not hold an SLO with affected stakeholders. This research was undertaken to examine whether the SLO might be a useful framework to enhance engagement and increase societal understanding of wind farms. Twenty-seven interviews across nine wind farms were conducted with stakeholders representing wind companies, local government authorities, local opposition, local support and turbine hosts. The interviews revealed a complexity of concerns that informed the stakeholders’ perspectives, including “game-changing” issues that may stand to significantly increase wind farm acceptance. The results are presented with practical steps towards the development of a preliminary working model of an SLO for Australian wind farms that addresses identified concerns. The emerging concept of SLO appears to provide a useful framework for wind farm developers to incorporate an improved model of consultation that engages local communities in ways that could enhance transparency and local support, and complement formal regulatory processes.

Failure analysis of corrugated panel subjected to windborne debris impacts

With the changing climate, more and more natural disasters such as cyclone, hurricane and typhoon take place around the world, which cause tremendous loss and damage. Damages of building structures by windborne debris impacts have been reported in almost all the previous major wind events. The windborne debris usually imposes localized impact loading and creates an opening on the building envelope, which might trigger serious damages to the building structures such as roof lift-up and collapse because strong wind pressures propagating into the structure. To withstand the impact of such extreme event, climate adaptation engineering solutions and technique need to be provided or improved for the building protection. The capacity requirement of panels to resist windborne debris impact is given in the Australian Wind Loading Code (AS/NZS 1170.2:2011) [1]. Corrugated metal panel, widely used as building envelope such as roof and wall cladding, might subject to the windborne debris impact. This study evaluates the capacity of corrugated panels to resist wind borne debris impact. Laboratory tests were carried out on corrugated metal panels of dimension 0.76m by 1.2m subjected to 4kg wooden projectile impacts. The effect of various impact locations, impact velocities and boundary conditions on their performance has been studied. The failure and deformation modes under various impact scenarios were observed and compared. The dynamic responses were examined based on the deformations and the strains on the panel back face. The perforation resistance capacity of panels subjected to windborne debris impact were assessed and analyzed. In addition, a numerical model was developed in LS-DYNA to simulate the response and failure of the corrugated panel under windborne debris impact. The accuracy of the numerical model was calibrated with the test data. The validated numerical model was then used to obtain the results such as impact force, boundary reaction force and energy absorption. The vulnerability curve of the corrugated panel against windborne debris impact was also derived.

Experimental and numerical study of composite lightweight structural insulated panel with expanded polystyrene core against windborne debris impacts

Natural disasters such as cyclone, hurricane, tornado and typhoon cause tremendous loss around the world. The windborne debris usually imposes high speed localized impact on the building envelope, which may harm people inside the building and create dominant openings. A dominant opening in the building envelope might cause internal pressure increasing and result in substantial damage to the building structures, such as roof lifting up or even collapse. To withstand the impact of such extreme event, the penetration resistant capacity of wall or roof panels to windborne debris impact should meet the requirements specified in the wind loading codes, e.g., the Australian Wind Loading Code (AS/NZS 1170.2:2011). In this study, a composite Structural Insulated Panel (SIP) with Extended Polystyrene (EPS) core sandwiched by flat metal skins that is commonly used in building industry was investigated. To study the structural response and penetration resistant capacity of the composite panel against windborne debris impacts, a series of laboratory tests were carried out by using a pneumatic cannon testing system. The effects of various specimen configurations, impact locations and debris impact velocities on their performance were investigated. The failure modes under various projectile impact scenarios were observed and compared by using two high-speed cameras. The dynamic responses were examined quantitatively in terms of the opening size, residual velocity of projectile, deformation and strain time histories on the back skin measured in the tests. The penetration resistance capacity of the panels subjected to windborne debris impact were examined and analyzed. In addition, numerical models were developed in LS-DYNA to simulate the response and damage of the composite SIP under windborne debris impact. Laboratory tested panels were first modeled. The test data was used to calibrate the accuracy of the numerical model. The validated numerical model was then used to conduct more numerical simulations to obtain more results such as energy absorption, impact force and vulnerability curve of the SIP against windborne debris impact.

The discourse of "social licence to operate": case study of the Australian wind industry

Social Licence to Operate is a concept from the mining industry that reflects the ongoing acceptance or approval for a development granted by local stakeholders. It is now being applied by wind farm developers. Using the Australian wind industry as a case study, this discourse analysis examined how Social Licence to Operate is perceived and operationalised, and the key themes in this conceptual and applied discourse. Discourse analysis acknowledges that language choices are not accidental and discourse reflects power relationships. The wind industry representatives interviewed considered power over the Social Licence to Operate was shared with community stakeholders. They recognised the stakeholders' power to delay or prevent projects, but rejected the notion that every stakeholder group should have veto power. Social Licence to Operate is seen by the wind industry through a business-oriented perspective, with an emphasis on business risk, and they describe the opposition to wind farms by invoking a metaphor of battle. The industry respondents described Social Licence to Operate as incorporating the values of trust, transparency and participation—which all contribute to creating authentic relationships. These findings can inform Social Licence to Operate research, engagement practices, and also encourage reflection by industry representatives on their implicit intentions for stakeholder engagement.

Hot air ablowin! 'Media-speak', social conflict, and the Australian 'decoupled' wind farm controversy.

In work in science, technology, and society social conflict around wind farms has a growing profile, not least because it draws our attention to two key interrelated themes: 'science, technology and governance' and 'socio-technological systems'. In this article on Australian wind farm development and siting, these themes are highlighted in contexts of sustainability, legitimacy, and competency for policy effectiveness. There is enduring social conflict around wind farms at the local community level, but little government understanding of this conflict or willingness to respond adequately to resolve it. This article examines the conflict through the lens of print media analysis. A key finding of the five identified is that people seeing wind farms as spoiling a sense of place is a primary cause of enduring social conflict at the local community level around wind farms, alongside significant environmental issues and inadequate community engagement; this finding also indicates a central reason for the highly problematic state of Australian wind energy transitions. In turn, by identifying this problematic situation as one of a significantly 'decoupled' and 'dysfunctional' condition of the Australian socio-technological wind farm development and siting system, I suggest remedies including those of a deliberative nature that also respond to the Habermas-Mouffe debate. These inform a socio-technical siting approach or pathway to better respect and navigate contested landscapes for enhanced renewable energy transitions at the local level.

The pattern of complaints about Australian wind farms does not match the establishment and distribution of turbines: support for the psychogenic, 'communicated disease' hypothesis.

Background and ObjectivesWith often florid allegations about health problems arising from wind turbine exposure now widespread, nocebo effects potentially confound any future investigation of turbine health impact. Historical audits of health complaints are therefore important. We test 4 hypotheses relevant to psychogenic explanations of the variable timing and distribution of health and noise complaints about wind farms in Australia.SettingAll Australian wind farms (51 with 1634 turbines) operating 1993–2012.MethodsRecords of complaints about noise or health from residents living near 51 Australian wind farms were obtained from all wind farm companies, and corroborated with complaints in submissions to 3 government public enquiries and news media records and court affidavits. These are expressed as proportions of estimated populations residing within 5 km of wind farms.ResultsThere are large historical and geographical variations in wind farm complaints. 33/51 (64.7%) of Australian wind farms including 18/34 (52.9%) with turbine size >1 MW have never been subject to noise or health complaints. These 33 farms have an estimated 21,633 residents within 5 km and have operated complaint-free for a cumulative 267 years. Western Australia and Tasmania have seen no complaints. 129 individuals across Australia (1 in 254 residents) appear to have ever complained, with 94 (73%) being residents near 6 wind farms targeted by anti wind farm groups. The large majority 116/129(90%) of complainants made their first complaint after 2009 when anti wind farm groups began to add health concerns to their wider opposition. In the preceding years, health or noise complaints were rare despite large and small-turbine wind farms having operated for many years.ConclusionsThe reported historical and geographical variations in complaints are consistent with psychogenic hypotheses that expressed health problems are “communicated diseases” with nocebo effects likely to play an important role in the aetiology of complaints.