Australian Veterinarians Research Articles

Australian Veterinarians' Perceptions Regarding the Zoonotic Potential of Mycobacterium avium Subspecies Paratuberculosis.

Public concerns over exposure to Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP) or MAP components via foods of animal origin could have negative trade consequences, despite the absence of conclusive scientific evidence of a causal association between Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP) and Crohn’s disease (CD). This study was conducted among Australian veterinarians to understand (a) their perceptions regarding the role of MAP in the causation of CD (an ordinal outcome), and (b) their consideration of the adoption of the precautionary principle against Johne’s disease (JD; a binary outcome). Ordinal and binary logistic regression analyses were performed to evaluate the association of explanatory variables with the above outcomes, respectively. Almost one-third of the respondents (32.2%) considered that MAP was likely to be involved in the causation of CD whereas more than two-thirds (69.8%) agreed with the adoption of the precautionary principle against JD. Veterinarians who were concerned about exposure to and/or getting infected with MAP were more likely to consider MAP as a causative agent of CD (odds ratio: 7.63; 95% CI: 1.55, 37.63) and favor the adoption of the precautionary principle against JD (odds ratio: 6.20; 95% CI: 1.90, 20.25). Those perceiving MAP as a causative agent of CD were also more likely to favor the adoption of the precautionary principle against JD (odds ratio: 13.2; 95% CI: 1.26, 138.90). The results suggest that Australian veterinarians, particularly those who consider MAP as a causative agent of CD are concerned about exposure to MAP and favor the adoption of the precautionary principle against JD. These findings can be useful for animal health authorities for designing JD control programs and policies.

Factors influencing the behaviour and perceptions of Australian veterinarians towards antibiotic use and antimicrobial resistance.

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a global crisis with impacts on the future health and welfare of humans and animals. Determining key factors that influence veterinarians’ antimicrobial prescribing behaviours can bridge the gap between prescribing guidelines and clinical usage. Veterinarians practicing in Australia were surveyed on their frequency in prescribing different antibiotics; factors influencing their antibiotic prescribing behaviours; and their perceptions of current drivers of AMR. Antibiotics were prescribed in a third of consultations with key differences in the frequency of use of specific antibiotics by small companion animal (SCA), equine and livestock veterinarians, which broadly aligned with antibiotic registration restrictions in Australia. SCA veterinarians reported prescribing broad-spectrum antibiotics of higher importance to human health more frequently than livestock veterinarians. Factors that were reported as ‘strong’ or ‘moderate’ barriers to appropriate antibiotic prescribing were the 1) cost of culture and susceptibility testing and 2) lack of access to rapid and affordable diagnostic tests. Fear of losing clients, colleague pressure, and lack of their own understanding about antibiotics were considered to be ‘no’ or ‘somewhat’ of a barrier to appropriate prescribing by respondents. SCA veterinarians placed greater importance on the contribution of antibiotic use in livestock to AMR, than antibiotic use in companion animals. Despite reporting use of fewer, mostly narrow spectrum antibiotics of lower importance to human and animal health, livestock veterinarians were generally more aware of their potential contribution to AMR. This study provides insights into the similarities and differences in SCA, equine and livestock veterinarians practicing in Australia and informs sector-specific strategies to improve antimicrobial stewardship.

Multiple introductions of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus ST612 into Western Australia associated both with human and equine reservoirs

Staphylococcus aureus is a serious human and animal pathogen. Multilocus sequence type 612 (ST612) is the dominant methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) clone in certain South African hospitals and is sporadically isolated from horses and horse-associated veterinarians in Australia. Colonisation and infection by ST612-MRSA is increasing in Western Australia. Whole-genome sequencing was performed for 51 isolates of ST612-MRSA from Western Australian patients and healthcare workers, South African hospital patients, Australian veterinarians and New South Wales horses. Core genome phylogenies suggested that Australian equine and veterinarian-associated ST612-MRSA were monophyletic. Individual Western Australian isolates grouped either with this equine-associated lineage or more diverse lineages related to those in South African hospitals. Bioinformatic analyses of the complete ST612-MRSA reference genome SVH7513 confirmed that ST612-MRSA was closely related to ST8 USA500 MRSA. Common use of rifampicin in South Africa and equine veterinarian practice may favour ST612-MRSA in these settings. Humans and horses colonised with ST612-MRSA are potential reservoirs for MRSA in Australia.

Beliefs, Attitudes and Self-Efficacy of Australian Veterinary Students Regarding One Health and Zoonosis Management.

Simple SummaryThe One Health approach provides a model for educating students, trainees and professionals in a systems approach to providing improved patient care and promoting healthy environments that benefit all species. In the present study, we designed an online survey that was communicated to senior veterinary students in a number of Australian veterinary schools. The survey evaluated the willingness of future veterinary graduates to participate positively in zoonoses (diseases transmitted between animals and humans) management through the adoption of the One Health approach in their future career. All respondents were willing to assist physicians in the management of zoonotic cases involving both patients and clients. The veterinary students were equally concerned about ensuring the best care for both animals (patients) and humans (clients). Our results demonstrate that there is strong support for future Australian veterinarians in the field of One Health.This study aimed to explore the beliefs and attitudes of a group of senior veterinary students regarding One Health and to evaluate their levels of confidence in advising the general public on preventative health issues at the human–animal interface. An online survey was communicated to senior veterinary students who were in their last two years of study. The questionnaire covered beliefs and attitudes, issues concerning the animal–human interface and participants’ confidence in diagnosing zoonoses. In total, 175 students from five Australian veterinary schools/colleges completed the online survey. The majority (96%) of students considered it their duty to promote the One Health approach, but only 36% believed there were sufficient practical frameworks for Australian veterinarian graduates to promote One Health. Interestingly, 81% (142/175) of respondents believed that veterinarians were more knowledgeable than physicians in managing zoonotic cases. Of the final-year students (n = 77), only 39% and 36% were confident in their ability to diagnose zoonoses in common companion animals and production animals, respectively. However, the number of those confident to diagnose zoonoses transmitted from wildlife was notably lower (22% (17/77)). Next-generation Australian veterinarians are keen to embrace their role in interprofessional collaboration; however, training efforts are required to reassure future veterinarians on aspects of zoonoses and One Health.

Survey of veterinary prescribing for poultry disease.

To enable better antimicrobial stewardship, it is important to know what the patterns of prescribing behaviour are and what diseases or reasons antibiotics are being prescribed. A prescribing guideline (i.e. recommended best practice for writing prescriptions) developed by the Australian poultry veterinarians exists. However, it is not a prescribing guideline detailing treatments for the commonly observed bacterial diseases in commercial poultry. An online survey was deployed to all registered veterinarians and members of the Australian Veterinary Poultry Association to identify prescribing behaviours for the most frequently observed bacterial diseases of poultry. A total of 39 survey responses were received. Most surveys were started but not completed; 13 (33%) were completed with 18 (46%) containing some information on prescribing. The most frequent treatment responses were for Escherichia coli in both layers and broilers, chronic respiratory disease (CRD), fowl cholera and spotty liver in layers and necrotic enteritis in broilers. Treatments described were for products registered for poultry use, within the recommended label dose and duration of treatment (Tables 1, 2). Unsurprisingly, tetracyclines and amoxycillin, followed by lincomycin and trimethoprim sulfonamide products were the most frequently reported treatment options. Inappropriate treatments were reported for salmonellosis and one veterinarian recommended the use of enrofloxacin for the treatment of fowl cholera. Information provided by respondents will enable the initial development of prescribing guidelines for both commercial and small poultry flocks. Importantly, it identified less than optimal prescribing behaviour for some diseases, a reliance on one class of antibiotic more than others and a failure to utilise all antimicrobial classes potentially available for treatment. Critically, the survey identified a lack of treatment options for bacterial disease in poultry. The most important bacterial diseases of poultry remain the same; effective alternatives for antibiotic treatment are required and old diseases, thought once gone, are reinventing themselves as problems for the future. Surveys of prescribing behaviours are essential for identifying diseases of high priority, changes in treatments and response to treatment and to identify areas for targeted antimicrobial stewardship, and research needs.

Development of a veterinary antimicrobial stewardship online training program for Australian veterinarians: a national collaborative effort.

Initiatives that reduce the selective pressures on microbes created by unnecessary antimicrobial use in all sectors of animal health are critical to the global reduction of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). A veterinary antimicrobial stewardship (AMS) online training program (www.vetams.org) was developed to assist veterinarians in reducing and rationalising their use of antimicrobial agents in clinical practice. This was a collaborative project, with representation from Australian and New Zealand veterinary schools, supported by the Veterinary Schools of Australia and New Zealand and funded by the Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources. A panel was created, consisting of academics with expertise in veterinary microbiology, pharmacology, epidemiology, public health and clinical practice. Resources were developed by the panel and these were integrated within an interactive online system (B Online Learning Systems) that allowed scenario‐centred learning for veterinarians across all areas of practice. The modules that were developed cover the following topics.

The Diagnosis of Feline Leukaemia Virus (FeLV) Infection in Owned and Group-Housed Rescue Cats in Australia

A field study was undertaken to (i) measure the prevalence of feline leukaemia virus (FeLV) exposure and FeLV infection in a cross-section of healthy Australian pet cats; and (ii) investigate the outcomes following natural FeLV exposure in two Australian rescue facilities. Group 1 (n = 440) consisted of healthy client-owned cats with outdoor access, predominantly from eastern Australia. Groups 2 (n = 38) and 3 (n = 51) consisted of a mixture of healthy and sick cats, group-housed in two separate rescue facilities in Sydney, Australia, tested following identification of index cases of FeLV infection in cats sourced from these facilities. Diagnostic testing for FeLV exposure/infection included p27 antigen testing using three different point-of-care FeLV kits and a laboratory-based ELISA, real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) testing to detect FeLV proviral DNA in leukocytes, real-time reverse-transcription PCR (qRT-PCR) testing to detect FeLV RNA in plasma, and neutralising antibody (NAb) testing. Cats were classified as FeLV-uninfected (FeLV-unexposed and presumptively FeLV-abortive infections) or FeLV-infected (presumptively regressive and presumptively progressive infections). In Group 1, 370 FeLV-unexposed cats (370/440, 84%), 47 abortive infections (47/440, 11%), nine regressive infections (9/440, 2%), and two progressive infections (2/440, 0.5%) were identified, and 12 FeLV-uninfected cats (12/440, 3%) were unclassifiable as FeLV-unexposed or abortive infections due to insufficient samples available for NAb testing. In Groups 2 and 3, 31 FeLV-unexposed cats (31/89, 35%), eight abortive infections (8/89, 9%), 22 regressive infections (22/89; 25%), and 19 progressive infections (19/89; 21%) were discovered, and nine FeLV-uninfected cats (9/89; 10%) were unclassifiable due to insufficient samples available for NAb testing. One of the presumptively progressively-infected cats in Group 3 was likely a focal FeLV infection. Two other presumptively progressively-infected cats in Group 3 may have been classified as regressive infections with repeated testing, highlighting the difficulties associated with FeLV diagnosis when sampling cats at a single time point, even with results from a panel of FeLV tests. These results serve as a reminder to Australian veterinarians that the threat of FeLV to the general pet cat population remains high, thus vigilant FeLV testing, separate housing for FeLV-infected cats, and FeLV vaccination of at-risk cats is important, particularly in group-housed cats in shelters and rescue facilities, where outbreaks of FeLV infection can occur.

Pilot study of Australian veterinarians and their perceptions and experiences related to online pet health information.

Investigate Australian veterinarians' perceptions of clients' use of the internet to find pet health information. An anonymous online survey was distributed using social media, e-newsletters and veterinary magazines. A total of 85 complete responses were obtained from Australian veterinarians. Most (80%) reported believing that > 80% of their clients have access to the internet at home or work, but 68% thought that the majority of their clients do not understand what they read online. Attitudes regarding the impact of online pet health information on the veterinarian-client relationship were mixed (56% reported negative impact and 33% a positive impact), as well as for clients' use of the internet for information on companion animal health (47% reported negative impact and 38% a positive impact). When asked how often they suggest specific websites to their clients ('information prescriptions'), the majority of veterinarians reported that this is done infrequently. This pilot study highlighted the perception of Australian veterinarians of their clients' use of the internet to find pet health information. It also highlighted the need for a large-scale, detailed survey of Australian veterinarians and their views in relation to pet owners and their use of online information. This should include evaluation of information prescriptions and their potential benefits for clients and patients.

Unravelling the epidemiology of tick paralysis in Australia: Application of passive surveillance and GIS

Unravelling the epidemiology of tick paralysis in Australia: Application of passive surveillance and GIS

Consequences and Management of Canine Brachycephaly in Veterinary Practice: Perspectives from Australian Veterinarians and Veterinary Specialists.

Simple SummaryCanine and human co-evolution have disclosed remarkable morphological plasticity in dogs. Brachycephalic dog breeds are increasing in popularity, despite them suffering from well-documented conformation-related health problems. This has implications for the veterinary caseloads of the future. Whether the recent selection of dogs with progressively shorter and wider skulls has reached physiological limits is controversial. The health problems and short life expectancies of dogs with extremely short skulls suggests that we may have even exceeded these limits. Veterinarians have a professional and moral obligation to prevent and minimise the negative health and welfare impacts of extreme morphology and inherited disorders, and they must address brachycephalic obstructive airway syndrome (BOAS) not only at the level of the patient, but also as a systemic welfare problem.This article, written by veterinarians whose caseloads include brachycephalic dogs, argues that there is now widespread evidence documenting a link between extreme brachycephalic phenotypes and chronic disease, which compromises canine welfare. This paper is divided into nine sections exploring the breadth of the impact of brachycephaly on the incidence of disease, as indicated by pet insurance claims data from an Australian pet insurance provider, the stabilization of respiratory distress associated with brachycephalic obstructive airway syndrome (BOAS), challenges associated with sedation and the anaesthesia of patients with BOAS; effects of brachycephaly on the brain and associated neurological conditions, dermatological conditions associated with brachycephalic breeds, and other conditions, including ophthalmic and orthopedic conditions, and behavioural consequences of brachycephaly. In the light of this information, we discuss the ethical challenges that are associated with brachycephalic breeds, and the role of the veterinarian. In summary, dogs with BOAS do not enjoy freedom from discomfort, nor freedom from pain, injury, and disease, and they do not enjoy the freedom to express normal behaviour. According to both deontological and utilitarian ethical frameworks, the breeding of dogs with BOAS cannot be justified, and further, cannot be recommended, and indeed, should be discouraged by veterinarians.

Attitudes and Practices of Australian Veterinary Professionals and Students towards Early Age Desexing of Cats.

Simple SummaryGlobally, desexing is used to reduce/prevent overpopulation of cats. However, its effective use is hampered by widely held views that it should occur at around six months of age, whereas female cats can breed from four months of age. As a result, many cats may have an unplanned litter before they are desexed. In Australia, increasing numbers of municipalities are mandating desexing of cats by three months of age, before the traditional age of 4–6 months. Achieving this goal requires support from veterinary professionals, so we used online and face-to-face surveys to determine the preferred desexing ages for cats and rationale of 957 Australian veterinarians, veterinary nurses, veterinary science students, and veterinary nursing students. A complementary survey of 299 veterinary practice websites across Australia documented information provided about desexing cats. Vet nurses and nursing students were more conservative than vets or vet students, preferring to desex cats (especially females) after four months because of concerns about anaesthetic risk. Over half of surveyed websites provided no information about desexing cats or offered desexing without explaining why it was necessary or when to perform it. In Australia, the preferences and practices of some current/future veterinary professionals do not match changing cat legislation.Surgical desexing of cats is typically carried out after six months of age (Mature Age Desexing, MAD); between 4–6 months (Traditional Age Desexing, TAD); or before four months (Early Age Desexing, EAD). We complemented existing surveys of veterinarians’ acceptance of EAD with online and face-to-face surveys, to ascertain the preferred desexing ages for cats and rationale of 957 Australian veterinarians, veterinary nurses, veterinary science students, and veterinary nursing students. A complementary survey of 299 veterinary practice websites across Australia documented any information provided about desexing cats. The most common reason for preferred desexing ages was reducing stray cat populations (30%); 78% of these respondents chose ages aligning with EAD. Vet nurses and nursing students were more conservative than vets or vet students, preferring to desex cats >4 months. Perceived anaesthetic risk was a major motivation, especially for nurses ≤5 years’ experience. Across 299 urban practices in Australian capital cities, 55% of surveyed websites provided no information about desexing cats or listed desexing without explaining why it was necessary, or when to perform it. Increasingly, Australian legislatures mandate desexing of cats by three months of age, so the practices of some current/future veterinary professionals do not match changing legislation.

Establishing research priorities to improve the One Health efficacy of Australian general practitioners and veterinarians with regard to zoonoses: A modified Delphi survey

While general medical practitioners (GPs) and veterinarians are often the first line responders in the face of a disease outbreak, pathways to improving the One Health efficacy of these clinicians remain unclear. A two-phase modified Delphi survey of professionals with known expertise in One Health (‘expert panel’) was used to 1) identify key knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAPs) of GPs and veterinarians that would be consistent with a One Health approach to zoonoses; and 2) determine priorities for future surveys with Australian GPs and veterinarians to identify important gaps that impede effective diagnosis and management of zoonoses. A list of 13 topics/sub-topics, as well as a list of 25 specific zoonotic diseases/agents emerged from the first phase of the survey. In the second phase the expert panel identified general knowledge of the clinical aspects and epidemiological aspects of zoonoses, as well as risk management practices, as the most important KAPs and research priorities for both GPs and veterinarians. In terms of diseases, the expert panel regarded knowledge of Hendra virus, Q fever, Australian bat lyssavirus (ABLV), anthrax and Brucella suis most important for veterinarians, whilst for GPs, Q fever, gastrointestinal/foodborne diseases, influenza, ABLV and local vector-borne diseases were found to be most important by the expert panel. Some differences were noted in terms of prioritization of topics/sub-topics and diseases/agents according to expert background (veterinary and non-veterinary). The Delphi survey technique enabled efficient collection of data from a diverse range of One Health ‘experts’/specialists and provided clear priorities for proposed future research, and potentially for educational interventions to improve One Health efficacy of clinicians.

Antimicrobial labelling in Australia: a threat to antimicrobial stewardship?

Antimicrobial resistance is a public health emergency, placing veterinary antimicrobial use under growing scrutiny. Antimicrobial stewardship, through appropriate use of antimicrobials, is a response to this threat. The need for antimicrobial stewardship in Australian veterinary practices has had limited investigation. A 2016 survey undertaken to investigate antimicrobial usage patterns by Australian veterinarians found that antimicrobial dose rates were varied and often inappropriate. Doses of procaine penicillin in horses and cattle were often low, with 68% and 90% of respondents, respectively, reporting doses that were unlikely to result in plasma concentrations above minimum inhibitory concentrations for common equine and bovine pathogens. Frequency of penicillin administration was also often inappropriate. Gentamicin doses in horses were largely appropriate (89% of dose rates appropriate), but 9% of respondents reported twice daily dosing. Amoxycillin and amoxycillin-clavulanate were administered at the appropriate doses, or above, to dogs and cats by 54% and 70% of respondents, respectively. Here, we explore the potential reasons for inappropriate antimicrobial dose regimens and report that antimicrobial labels often recommend incorrect dose rates and thus may be contributing to poor prescribing practices. Changes to legislation are needed to ensure that antimicrobial drug labels are regularly updated to reflect the dose needed to effectively and safely treat common veterinary pathogens. This will be especially true if changes in legislation restrict antimicrobial use by veterinarians to the uses and doses specified on the label, thus hampering the current momentum towards improved antimicrobial stewardship.

Insights into the knowledge, practices and training needs of veterinarians working with smallholder livestock producers in Australia

The location of properties holding livestock is fluid; edging towards the boundaries of urban Australia, increasing the likelihood that veterinarians will be exposed to livestock as part of the provision of routine veterinary services. This study was conducted to ascertain the challenges, knowledge level and training needs of veterinarians working within this landscape, with the ultimate aim of informing the development of resources and training to better equip them in this capacity. For this purpose, a cross-sectional study, using a self-administered questionnaire was conducted among Australian veterinarians. The questionnaire comprised a mixture of 47 short closed, semi-closed and open-ended questions and was available for electronic distribution. Data was analysed descriptively and logistic regression analysis was used to identify potential factors associated with knowledge and practices of veterinarians in relation to smallholders. Complete responses were obtained from 91 veterinarians. The main livestock species kept by smallholder clients were sheep, goats, and cattle; with on-farm visits reported the most frequent interaction type, and responding to emergency situations the most frequently performed activity. The challenges experienced by veterinarians when working with smallholders were mostly related to external factors such as; lack of facilities, lack of client knowledge on animal health management and client’s financial constraints. Over 95% of respondents provided some level of biosecurity advice and zoonotic disease information as part of their routine veterinary service. Although veterinarians provide advice and support to smallholders, only 14.5% considered themselves to be highly influential on smallholder practices. Confidence level in investigating disease differed by livestock species, with lower confidence reported in pigs, poultry and alpaca. Respondents were open to receiving assistance to support smallholders on matters related to disease, welfare or biosecurity, with other veterinarians (government and private), reported as the most frequently utilised resource. Having access to materials that could be distributed to smallholders was considered to be an effective way in which to provide information. While the risk of zoonotic disease was considered a challenge associated with working with smallholders, respondent’s use of personal protective equipment (PPE), whilst performing common veterinary activities, was in many instances inadequate. Similarly, vaccination levels among veterinarians and other workers within the veterinary practice to prevent zoonotic diseases were variable. This study provides an insight into the way in which veterinarians engage with smallholders and highlight the importance of providing both groups with the tools necessary to manage the livestock to which are exposed.

Australian veterinarians - global challenges.

This paper discusses the wide range of roles that Government veterinarians play both in Australia and globally. The paper was presented as a plenary session at the National Australian Veterinary Association Annual Conference.

Survey of equine castration techniques, preferences and outcomes among Australian veterinarians.

(1) To collect the perceptions of veterinarians performing equine castrations in Australia on techniques, preferences and outcomes, (2) to investigate veterinarian use and experience with the Henderson castrating instrument and (3) to investigate potential associations between demographics, castration methods and techniques, and complications. Online survey of members of the Australian Veterinary Association's Special Interest Group, Equine Veterinarians Australia (EVA). A link to the survey was included in the EVA e-newsletter and practices on the EVA website were contacted by telephone and follow-up email. Fisher's exact test was used to determine associations between ligation and complications. A generalised linear model with a negative binomial family was used to determine associations between count response variables and categorical independent variables. Responses were obtained from 138 veterinarians (response rate, 13.1%) who performed 5330 castrations over 12 months. Castrations were most commonly performed in the field, on anaesthetised horses, using emasculators, via an open approach and without ligation of the spermatic cord. Estimated complications after use of emasculators were swelling (25%), haemorrhage (5%) and infection (5%). The Henderson instrument was used by approximately 10% of respondents and its use for castration was associated with fewer reports of postoperative swelling compared with emasculators (P = 0.002). Rates of evisceration with the Henderson and emasculator methods were comparable (0.43% and 0.9%, respectively). Castration preferences varied widely among survey participants. Reported complication types and rates were comparable to those reported previously in other countries. Perceptions that the Henderson instrument was associated with less swelling should be investigated further via a prospective controlled investigation.

Molecular Characterization of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Isolated from Australian Animals and Veterinarians.

This study aimed to determine the frequency and molecular epidemiology of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) from Australian animals and whether animal-derived MRSA was similar to that from Australian veterinarians. A total of 1,080 clinical coagulase positive Staphylococcus isolates from Australian animals were collected during 2013. Sixteen (4%) of 360 S. aureus isolates were MRSA. Most MRSA came from companion animals, while none came from livestock. MRSA isolates were characterized using whole genome sequencing. ST22-IV (EMRSA-15) was the most common clone in dogs and cats. Clonal complex (CC) 8 was most common in horses. Most ST22-IV isolates were resistant to ciprofloxacin. Animal-derived MRSA genomes were interrogated for the presence of host-specific genetic markers (staphylokinase gene [scn], chemotaxis-inhibiting proteins gene [chp], staphylococcal complement inhibitor gene [sak], enterotoxin A gene [sea], and Von Willebrand Factor binding protein gene [vwb]). A subset of MRSA genomes previously collected from Australian veterinarians was also interrogated. There was no clear pattern in the distribution of host-specific markers among animal and veterinarian isolates. Animal- and veterinarian-derived MRSA were intermingled in the phylogenetic tree. The absence of MRSA in Australian livestock is in stark contrast with its presence in livestock from other countries. Possible explanations include Australia's geographic isolation, the absence of live animal importation into Australia, and most notably, the restrictions placed on the use of antimicrobials of critical importance in Australian livestock.

Antimicrobials used for surgical prophylaxis by companion animal veterinarians in Australia

Antimicrobials are widely used in veterinary practices, but there has been no investigation into the classes of antimicrobials used or the appropriateness of their use in surgical prophylaxis. Antimicrobial usage guidelines were published by the Australian Infectious Disease Advisory Panel (AIDAP) in 2013, but there has been no investigation of compliance with them. This study aimed to investigate antimicrobial use for surgical prophylaxis in companion animal practice and assess compliance with AIDAP guidelines for selected conditions by conducting a cross-sectional study of antimicrobial usage patterns of Australian veterinarians using an online questionnaire. Information solicited included: details of the respondent, the frequency with which antimicrobials were used for specific surgical conditions (including dose and duration) and practice antimicrobial use policies and sources of information about antimicrobial drugs and their uses. A total of 886 members of the Australian veterinary profession completed the survey. Few (22%) reported that their practice that had an antimicrobial use policy. Generally, the choice of antimicrobial drug was appropriate for the given surgical conditions. There was poor compliance with AIDAP guidelines for non-use of antimicrobials for routine neutering. Veterinarians caring solely for companion animals had higher odds of optimal compliance with guidelines than veterinarians in mixed species practices (OR 1.4, 95%CI 1.1–1.9). Recent graduates (>2011) had lower odds of compliance than older graduates (OR 0.8, 95%CI 0.6–0.9). The findings suggest that antimicrobial use guidelines need to be expanded and promoted to improve the responsible use of antimicrobials in small animal practice in Australia.

Serological evidence of exposure to Rickettsia felis and Rickettsia typhi in Australian veterinarians

BackgroundRickettsia felis and Rickettsia typhi are emerging arthropod-borne zoonoses causing fever and flu-like symptoms. Seroprevalence and risk factors associated with exposure to these organisms was explored in Australian veterinarians.MethodsOne hundred and thirty-one veterinarians from across Australia were recruited to participate in a cross-sectional survey. Veterinarians provided a single blood sample and answered a questionnaire on potential risk factors influencing their exposure to R. felis and R. typhi. Indirect microimmunofluorescence antibody testing (IFAT) was used to identify evidence of serological exposure of the participants to R. felis and R. typhi. Results were analyzed and a logistical regression model performed to predict risk factors associated with seropositivity.ResultsIn total, 16.0% of participants were seropositive to R. felis, 4.6% to R. typhi and 35.1% seropositive to both, where cross-reactivity of the IFAT between R. felis and R. typhi precluded a definitive diagnosis. Veterinarians residing within the south-eastern states of Victoria and Tasmania were at a higher risk of exposure to R. felis or generalised R. felis or R. typhi exposure. Older veterinarians and those that recommended flea treatment to their clients were found to be significantly protected from exposure.ConclusionsThe high exposure to R. felis amongst veterinary professionals suggests that flea-borne spotted fever is an important cause of undifferentiated fever conditions that may not be adequately recognized in Australia.

Trends and risk factors for human Q fever in Australia, 1991-2014.

Australian abattoir workers, farmers, veterinarians and people handling animal birthing products or slaughtering animals continue to be at high risk of Q fever despite an effective vaccine being available. National Notifiable Diseases Surveillance System data were analysed for the period 1991-2014, along with enhanced risk factor data from notified cases in the states of New South Wales and Queensland, to examine changes in the epidemiology of Q fever in Australia. The national Q fever notification rate reduced by 20% [incident rate ratio (IRR) 0·82] following the end of the National Q fever Management Program in 2006, and has increased since 2009 (IRR 1·01-1·34). Highest rates were in males aged 40-59 years (5·9/100 000) and 87% of Q fever cases occurred in New South Wales and Queensland. The age of Q fever cases and proportion of females increased over the study period. Based on the enhanced risk factor data, the most frequently listed occupation for Q fever cases involved contact with livestock, followed by 'no known risk' occupations. More complete and comparable enhanced risk factor data, at the State/Territory and national levels, would aid in further understanding of the epidemiology of Q fever.