Australian Region Research Articles

Seasonal climate summary for the southern hemisphere (summer 2019–20): a summer of extremes

This is a summary of the southern hemisphere atmospheric circulation patterns and meteorological indices for summer 2019–20; an account of seasonal rainfall and temperature for the Australian region is also provided. The antecedent climate conditions and climatic drivers for summer 2019–20 resulted in unprecedented extremes for Australia, with many heat and fire weather extremes. The austral summer of 2019–20 was staged to be hot and dry, with climate drivers supporting higher than average temperatures and lower than average rainfall. These conditions contributed to the highest recorded monthly accumulated national Forest Fire Danger Index. As the dominant climate influence for December receded during the season, dynamic (weather) processes dominated for changeable conditions – particularly in the mid-latitudes. Both January and February were among the 10 hottest on record, although several mid-latitude sites experienced unusually cool days. Across the rest of the hemisphere, conditions were also extreme, with notable drought conditions persisting from spring over large parts of South America. Temperature anomalies for land and ocean areas of the southern hemisphere were respectively the third and second highest on record.

New record of Borniochrysa Brooks & Barnard, 1990 (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) from China, with description of two new species

Borniochrysa Brooks & Barnard, 1990 (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae: Chrysopinae: Chrysopinae) is a green lacewing genus, with five species previously recorded from the Australian, Oriental, and Afrotropical regions. Here we report the first record of Borniochrysa from China, and describe two new species, Borniochrysa kamayaria sp. nov. and Borniochrysa zhenxiana sp. nov. The standard DNA barcoding region of cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) of these two new species was sequenced. An identification key to the Borniochrysa species is also provided.

Effective Therapeutic Options for Melioidosis: Antibiotics versus Phage Therapy.

Melioidosis, also known as Whitmore's disease, is a potentially fatal infection caused by the Gram-negative bacteria Burkholderia pseudomallei with a mortality rate of 10-50%. The condition is a "glanders-like" illness prevalent in Southeast Asian and Northern Australian regions and can affect humans, animals, and sometimes plants. Melioidosis received the epithet "the great mimicker" owing to its vast spectrum of non-specific clinical manifestations, such as localised abscesses, septicaemia, pneumonia, septic arthritis, osteomyelitis, and encephalomyelitis, which often lead to misdiagnosis and ineffective treatment. To date, antibiotics remain the backbone of melioidosis treatment, which includes intravenous therapy with ceftazidime or meropenem, followed by oral therapy with TMP-SMX or amoxicillin/clavulanic acid and supported by adjunctive treatment. However, bacteria have developed resistance to a series of antibiotics, including clinically significant ones, during treatment. Therefore, phage therapy has gained unprecedented interest and has been proposed as an alternative treatment. Although no effective phage therapy has been published, the findings of experimental phage therapies suggest that the concept could be feasible. This article reviews the benefits and limitations of antibiotics and phage therapy in terms of established regimens, bacterial resistance, host specificity, and biofilm degradation.

Variations of Summertime SSTA Independent of ENSO in the Maritime Continent and Their Possible Impacts on Rainfall in the Asian–Australian Monsoon Region

Abstract The sea surface temperature anomalies (SSTA) in the Maritime Continent (MC) region are mainly related to local variability, ENSO, and the Indian Ocean dipole. Using the reanalysis data from NOAA and NCEP–NCAR, by employing the empirical orthogonal function (EOF) analysis, we have explored the principal mode of ENSO-independent summertime SSTA in the MC and its associations with regional climate anomalies. After ENSO signals have been removed, the leading mode of SSTA in the MC exhibits a uniformly signed pattern, which mainly varies on an interannual time scale. The maintenance mechanisms of the ENSO-independent SSTA are different in different subregions, especially over the region south of Java and the tropical northwestern Pacific. When the time coefficient of the first leading EOF mode (EOF1) is positive, warmer SSTAs are observed in the area south of Java. The oceanic dynamic heating there facilitates the warmer SSTA. Thus, the Gill-type response of the atmosphere is found over the region south of Java. The diabatic cooling in the atmosphere is dominant over the tropical northwestern Pacific where the warmer SSTA is maintained by the absorption of solar radiation due to less cloud cover there. A tilted vertical circulation is hence formed, linking the tropical southeastern Indian Ocean with the tropical northwestern Pacific. The anomalous circulations in the Asian–Australian monsoon region are affected by this ENSO-independent SSTA mode, resulting in decreased summer rainfall anomaly in the region near the southeast coast of China and increased winter precipitation anomaly over the extratropical region of Australia.

Seasonal variability of eddy kinetic energy in the East Australian current region

The East Australian Current (EAC) is an important western boundary current of the South Pacific subtropical Circulation with high mesoscale eddy kinetic energy (EKE). Based on satellite altimeter observations and outputs from the eddy-resolving ocean general circulation model (OGCM) for the Earth Simulator (OFES), the seasonal variability of EKE and its associated dynamic mechanism in the EAC region are studied. High EKE is mainly concentrated in the shear-region between the poleward EAC southern extension and the equatorward EAC recirculation along Australia's east coast, which is confined within the upper ocean (0-300 m). EKE in this area exhibits obvious seasonal variation, strong in austral summer with maximum (465±89 cm² s-²) in February and weak in winter with minimum (334±48 cm² s-²) in August. Energetics analysis from OFES suggests that the seasonal variability of EKE is modulated by the mixed instabilities composed of barotropic and baroclinic instabilities confined within the upper ocean, and barotropic instability (baroclinic instability) is the main energy source of EKE in austral summer (winter). The barotropic process is mainly controlled by the zonal shear of meridional velocities of the EAC southern extension and the EAC recirculation. The poleward EAC southern extension and the equatorward EAC recirculation are synchronously strengthened (weakened) due to the local positive (negative) sea level anomalies (SLA) under geostrophic equilibrium, and the barotropic instability dominated by zonal shear is enhanced (slackened), which results in a high (low) level of EKE in the EAC region.

Adherence to secondary prevention of rheumatic fever and rheumatic heart disease in young people: an 11‐year retrospective study

Objectives:To evaluate the secondary prevention of acute rheumatic fever (ARF) and rheumatic heart disease (RHD) in the Townsville region, Australia. Methods:Adherence to benzathine benzylpenicillin G (BPG) was determined for 196 children and young adults aged under 22 years between January 2009 and December 2019, and factors associated with BPG adherence were analysed. Secondary outcomes included attendance at specialist reviews and echocardiograms. Results:Adequate adherence (80%) to regular BPG injections was met by 51.1% of the cohort. Adequate BPG adherence more likely occurred for those that attended the Paediatric Outreach Clinic (OR4.15, 95%CI:2.13‐8.05) or a school delivery program (OR1.87, 95%CI:1.11‐3.45). People with moderate/severe RHD had greater BPG adherence (OR1.76,95%CI:1.00‐3.10). People in rural/remote areas were less likely to have adequate BPG adherence compared to urban counterparts (OR0.31, 95%CI:0.15‐0.65). Adherence to echocardiography was 66% and specialist review attendance was 12.5–50%. Conclusion:Half of the cohort in the Townsville region received adequate BPG prophylaxis to prevent ARF/RHD. Although rates were relatively higher than those reported in other Australian regions, health delivery goals should be close to 100%. Low attendance at specialist services was reported. Implication for public health:Delivery models with dedicated services, case management and family support could improve BPG adherence in individuals with ARF/RHD. Further resources in rural and remote areas are needed.

Overview and Investigation of Australian Aboriginal Lizard Traps

Landscape management by First Nations Peoples often involves sustainably enhancing environments to increase availability of resources. Granite outcrops, globally, can exhibit such modifications. Propped-up rock slabs constructed by First Nations Peoples for catching reptiles (lizard traps) are a widespread, overlooked, and threatened cultural component of granites of the Southwest Australian Floristic Region. Our team, which includes three Merningar/Menang Elders (co-authors LK, HC, and AE), has undertaken a systematic and culturally informed review of the current scientific literature and Traditional Ecological Knowledge with the subsequent aim of using that data to raise awareness and advocate for lizard trap protection. We collated information and identified knowledge gaps regarding lizard traps: their definition, function, distribution, related Traditional Ecological Knowledge, threats, and conservation. Elders explained that lizard traps do not restrain or contain animals. They provide reptiles with shelter from aerial predators, and opportunities for basking, shade, and foraging. They work as a trap because startled reptiles run beneath a lizard trap, are surrounded by people, and extracted. All 317 published lizard trap records are in southwest Western Australia, across Noongar, Yamaji, and Ngadju lands. Ten papers expressed concern over threats to lizard traps. Overall, lizard traps highlight how sustainable ecosystem enhancement requires deep knowledge of the land and culture that is embedded in the ecological system. Further cross-cultural ecological studies are required to document, understand, and protect these culturally significant structures, and the Traditional Ecological Knowledge and biodiversity that they sustain.

Vertical deformation and residual altimeter systematic errors around continental Australia inferred from a Kalman-based approach

HighlightsWe further developed a method to investigate time-variability of vertical land motion (VLM) and regionally-correlated altimeter systematic errors around Australia.Our approach confirms widespread subsidence of the Australian region, and this is not explained by glacial isostatic adjustment alone.We identified noise driven by likely different oceanographic signals between tide gauge and offshore locations as a limit to resolving time-variable VLM signals.The addition of non-reference missions improves spatial sampling and reduces the impact of differential oceanic signals.The average rate of absolute sea-level rise is higher than previously published estimates, suggesting an acceleration in sea-level.

Spatial and Temporal Trends in the Timing of Budburst for Australian Wine Regions

Background and Aims. This research investigates spatial and temporal trends in budburst timing across Australian wine regions from 1910–2019. The potential drivers of these observed trends were then identified, including anthropogenic climate change and large-scale climate drivers (El Nino–Southern Oscillation (ENSO), Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD), and Southern Annular Mode (SAM)). Methods and Results. The timing of budburst was approximated using accumulation measurements applied to Australia wide gridded temperature data. We show that the modelled budburst date has been gradually shifting to earlier in the year for most (95%) Australian wine regions, at an average rate of one day every 24 years. This linear trend in budburst timing is likely to be associated with steadily increasing air temperatures due to anthropogenic climate change. Significant interannual variability was also observed and was correlated with IOD and SAM; however, no significant relationship was found with ENSO. Positive IOD phases result in budburst occurring on average four days earlier than the long-term average; however, this can be as high as eight days. Conclusions. The results of this study highlight that budburst timing for wine grapes is not a stationary phenomenon and is influenced by both natural and anthropogenic conditions. Significance of the Study. Understanding variability and trends in modelled budburst timing will assist tactical and strategic management practices and improve phenological modelling and adaptation planning for climate change.

Prevalence of vision conditions in children in a very remote Australian community

ABSTRACT Clinical relevance Understanding the prevalence of vision conditions in a population is critical for determining the most appropriate strategies for detecting and correcting eye conditions in a community. This is particularly important in very remote regions where access to vision testing services is limited. Background Although recent studies have provided detailed analyses of the prevalence of vision conditions in Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander children in urban and regional areas of Australia, there is a paucity of research examining vision conditions in children in remote regions. Importantly, a significant proportion of the population in remote and very remote regions identify as Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander people. Methods Comprehensive eye examinations were provided to 193 primary school children in a very remote Australian region. Ninety eight percent of children identified as Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander. The eye examination included measures of visual acuity, cycloplegic autorefraction, binocular vision and accommodative function, ocular health and colour vision. Previous history of eye examinations and refractive correction were assessed through parental questionnaire. Results Although the average unaided vision in the population was good (mean: 0.02 ± 0.13 logMAR) and the prevalence of reduced unaided visual acuity (>0.3 logMAR in either eye) was low (4%), vision conditions were detected in 32% of children. The most common conditions were clinically significant refractive errors (18% of children) and binocular vision or accommodative disorders (16%). Of the total population of children tested, 10% had previously had an eye examination, and 2% were reported to have previously been prescribed spectacles. Conclusions In this population of children in a very remote Australian region, up to 1 in 3 children had a vision condition, with many of these conditions being uncorrected and undetected. These findings highlight the important need for additional resources to be made available to very remote communities for the detection and correction of vision conditions in childhood.

“Half a flood’s no good”: flooding, viticulture, and hydrosocial terroir in a South Australian wine region

Floods generate both risks and benefits. In Langhorne Creek, South Australia, a historically-embedded system of shared floodwater management exists among farmers, who rely on semi-regular flood inundations as part of the region’s hydrosocial terroir – a dynamic conjunction of water, landscape, social relations and agricultural practice. Unruly floods coexist with a heavily regulated and precisely measured system of modern water management for viticultural irrigation across the region. Since the mid-twentieth century, groundwater extraction and new pipeline schemes have linked Langhorne Creek to the Murray Darling Basin water management system, which has displaced flooding as the primary source of irrigation water. The associated modernist shift towards the rationalization of water as a measurable resource has acted to sideline flood irrigation. Yet, floods maintain important viticultural, ecological and social roles in Langhorne Creek, adding to the flexibility and resilience of the region in response to water management challenges. The system involves technological and infrastructural components, such as flood gates and channels, but also relies upon the cooperation and coordination of community members. Local vignerons suggest that flood irrigation is environmentally as well as economically beneficial, rejuvenating riparian wetlands along watercourses. A more formal acknowledgement of the specific regional experiences of water management in a wine region like Langhorne Creek helps to fill a gap between emplaced and hydrosocial understandings of flood irrigation and broader assumptions about flooding as wasteful and inefficient.

Forecasting GIC Activity Associated With Solar Wind Shocks for the Australian Region Power Network

AbstractsSpace weather induced Geomagnetically Induced Currents (GICs) that are hazardous to power networks at high latitudes are often the result of rapid changes in near‐Earth space current systems such as the auroral electrojets and field‐aligned currents. GIC activity at low‐middle latitudes may be driven by currents that are more relevant to these regions such as the ring or magnetopause current systems. Solar wind shocks create rapid changes in the magnetopause current that manifest as large step changes in the geomagnetic field at the Earth's surface, often referred to as geomagnetic sudden impulses (SIs), that are effective drivers of GIC activity in power networks at low‐middle latitudes. This paper describes the results of a study into the relationship between the driver of SIs, solar wind shocks, and their potential impact on power systems in the Australian region, as quantified by a GIC‐index. The initial data set for analysis was produced by programmatically scanning solar wind data obtained from the ACE satellite spanning the period 1998–2008 for solar wind shocks. For each identified solar wind shock, geomagnetic field data from the Australian region were analyzed to determine the corresponding SI and GIC‐index. Statistical analyses of GIC‐indices and various solar wind parameters associated with the shocks resulted in an empirical model that is a function of solar wind dynamic pressure, geomagnetic latitude, and change in solar wind speed with good operational predictive capability. This model was further assessed using online catalogs of solar wind shock events.

A training programme for community pharmacists to support people living with severe and persistent mental illness: Intervention mapping in the context of a pandemic

Objective: The Bridging the Gap Between Physical and Mental Illness in Community Pharmacy ( PharMIbridge) randomised controlled trial (RCT) aims to test the effectiveness of a pharmacist-led support service in improving medication adherence, and the physical and mental health of people living with severe and persistent mental illness compared to a standard medication review service. Method: Using the six-step intervention mapping (IM) framework, this paper describes the development and content of the PharMIbridge pharmacist training programme, an integral part of the RCT implementation, and continuous adaptations made to the process to keep pace with the evolving severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic in Australia. A Training Working Group comprising health educators, practitioners, mental health consumers and researchers, refined the programme objectives and assisted with developing content and troubleshooting issues related to training delivery for pharmacists randomised to the RCT intervention arm. Results: A 2-day training programme was developed, which included Mental Health First Aid, simulated patient role-plays, and four pre-recorded modules using lectures, demonstration case vignettes, role-play activities and discussion. The programme, co-facilitated by project team members and mentors (pharmacist and consumer educators), aims to enhance pharmacists’ mental health literacy, skills and confidence and empower them to engage with this vulnerable population using a strengths-based approach. Pre- and post-training questionnaires and interviews will be used to evaluate the impact of the PharMIbridge training programme. Conclusion: The systematic stepwise method provided by the IM framework highlights the solution-focused approach adopted by the project team and characteristics including adaptability and resilience which enabled training development and implementation across four Australian regions during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic.

Revision of Formosargus James, 1939 (Diptera: Stratiomyidae): five new species in an otherwise rare genus and Amsaria Adisoemarto, 1974 as a generic synonym

ABSTRACT The Australian and Oriental genus Formosargus James, 1939 (Stratiomyidae: Sarginae), until recently only known from three described species – F. kerteszi James, 1939, F. melanogrammus Lessard and Woodley, 2020, and F. variegatus James, 1969 – is herein revised. The monotypic sargine genus Amsaria Adisoemarto, 1974 is considered to be a synonym of Formosargus, and examination of material accumulated over the years resulted in the description of five new species to science: F. berezovskiyi sp. nov., F. borneensis sp. nov., F. mangoleensis sp. nov., F. trivittatus sp. nov. and F. woodleyi sp. nov. The genus, which was previously thought to be restricted to the Oriental Region only – known from species from Taiwan and the Philippines, though recently discovered in northern Australia and West Java, Indonesia (F. melanogrammus) – is here shown to be widespread in Southeast Asia. It reaches not only the transition zone between the Oriental and Australian regions and beyond, with first records from Papua New Guinea, but is also reported from the continental portion of Asia, with first records from Malaysia and Thailand. Rare in collections and with virtually no biological information available, Formosargus may have a hidden diversity in the Southeast Asia tropical wet forests, so additional species are expected to be found with future collecting efforts in the area. A key to all the species of Formosargus (which now includes 10 species), detailed descriptions of the species, and a map expanding the geographical distribution of the genus are also presented. http://www.zoobank.org/urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:A6F9B9FB-D3F9-49F2-8FC1-5E6A5E0AB3B1 http://www.zoobank.org/urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:BB902F6A-4597-4CEB-872E-B709DFC95C2E http://www.zoobank.org/urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:D4B99C35-6994-422E-9EEB-18D3C56E4CB6 http://www.zoobank.org/urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:FE0C6539-E2B5-43FF-99D3-F77B7861685B http://www.zoobank.org/urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:76740020-A800-4E81-956E-A6682DB687B6 http://www.zoobank.org/urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:5B9F0A4D-8A05-4BFC-8983-06A8CD411345

On the diversity of Neotropical Hymenoptera

Hymenoptera is globally one of the most diverse groups of insects. There are no recent estimates nor sound data on the size of the fauna of this order in the Neotropical Region. Based on printed or digital catalogs, lists, as well as reviews of monographs, and other sources, the Neotropics comprises 26 superfamilies, 92 families, 3162 genera, and over 33 640 species of Hymenoptera. Hymenoptera diversity in the Neotropics is greater than in the Nearctic, Palearctic and Australian regions. The Neotropics is probably the richest region in the World in families, genera, and species of the order, with the majority of taxa endemic to this region.

Regional evolution of psychosocial services in Australia before and after the implementation of the National Disability Insurance Scheme.

This paper compares the evolution of the psychosocial sector in two Australian regions pre and post introduction of the National Disability Insurance Scheme - a major reform to the financing, planning and provision of disability services in Australia, intended to create greater competition and efficiency in the market, and more choice for service users. We used a standardised service classification instrument based on a health ecosystems approach to assess service availability and diversity of psychosocial services provided by non-government organisations in two Primary Health Network regions. We identified very different evolutionary pathways in the two regions. Service availability increased in Western Sydney but decreased in the Australian Capital Territory. The diversity of services available did not increase in either Primary Health Network 4 years after the reform. Many services were experiencing ongoing funding uncertainty. Assumptions of increased efficiency through organisational scaling up, and a greater diversity in range of service availability were not borne out. This study shows the urgent need for evaluation of the effects of the NDIS on the provision of psychosocial care in Australia. Four years after the implementation of the NDIS at vast expense key objectives not been met for consumers or for the system as a whole, and an environment of uncertainty has been created for providers. It demonstrates the importance of standardised service mapping to monitor the effects of major reforms on mental health care as well as the need for a focus at the local level.

First record of three alien Auchenorrhyncha species from Europe: Acanalonia bivittata (Say, 1825), Branchana xanthota Li, 2011, and Dryadomorpha pallida Kirkaldy 1906 (Hemiptera: Auchenorrhyncha: Acanaloniidae, Cicadellidae)

Three alien Auchenorrhyncha species are recorded for the first time from Europe (northern Italy): the Nearctic planthopper Acanalonia bivittata (Say, 1825), the Asian leafhopper Branchana xanthota Li, 2011, and the leafhopper Dryadomorpha pallida Kirkaldy 1906, present in the Afrotropical, Palearctic, Oriental and Australian regions. Observations on morphology and data on biology and host plants are provided. The 5th instar nymph of Dryadomorpha pallida is described. Considerations and data about the increase of alien Auchenorrhyncha species in Europe are discussed.

Deep vicariance and frequent transoceanic dispersal shape the evolutionary history of a globally distributed fern family.

The historical biogeography of ferns is typically expected to be dominated by long-distance dispersal due to their minuscule spores. However, few studies have inferred the historical biogeography of a large and widely distributed group of ferns to test this hypothesis. Our aims were to determine the extent to which long-distance dispersal vs. vicariance have shaped the history of the fern family Blechnaceae, to explore ecological correlates of dispersal and diversification, and to determine whether these patterns differ between the northern and southern hemispheres. We used sequence data for three chloroplast loci to infer a time-calibrated phylogeny for 154 of 265 species of Blechnaceae, including representatives of all genera in the family. This tree was used to conduct ancestral range reconstruction and stochastic character mapping, estimate diversification rates, and identify ecological correlates of diversification. Blechnaceae originated in Eurasia and began diversifying in the late Cretaceous. A lineage comprising most extant diversity diversified principally in the austral Pacific region around the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum. Land connections that existed near the poles during periods of warm climates likely facilitated migration of several lineages, with subsequent climate-mediated vicariance shaping current distributions. Long-distance dispersal is frequent and asymmetrical, with New Zealand/Pacific Islands, Australia, and tropical America being major source areas. Ancient vicariance and extensive long-distance dispersal have shaped the history of Blechnaceae in both the northern and southern hemispheres. The exceptional diversity in austral regions appears to reflect rapid speciation in these areas; mechanisms underlying this evolutionary success remain uncertain.

Indigenous Knowledge, Aspiration, and Potential Application in Contemporary Fire Mitigation in Southwest Australia

Protection of biodiversity, human assets, and cultural heritage pose significant challenges to contemporary planning of bushfire mitigation activities. Current mitigation approaches are not always appropriate, and mismanagement is a source of distress for Indigenous peoples. Increased understanding of Indigenous fire knowledge and increased Indigenous participation may provide insight into more appropriate and inclusive land management for fire mitigation. We analysed contemporary Noongar and Western fire practitioner approaches within an Indigenous fire knowledge (IFK) framework to explore knowledge and aspirations for small reserves in the Southwest Australian Floristic Region (SWAFR) global biodiversity hotspot. We recorded an extensive knowledge base, characterised by a highly nuanced approach to burning, held by the Noongar coauthors. We explore potential approaches to applying this knowledge to build collaborative fire mitigation strategies with mutually beneficial outcomes for biodiversity, cultural heritage, and human assets.

Machine Learning Assessment of the Impact of Global Warming on the Climate Drivers of Water Supply to Australia’s Northern Murray-Darling Basin

Droughts and long dry spells, interspersed with intense rainfall events, have been characteristic of the northern Murray-Darling Basin (NMDB), a major Australian agricultural region. The NMDB precipitation results from weather systems ranging from thunderstorms to larger scale events. The larger scale events exhibit high seasonal and annual rainfall variability. To detect attributes shaping the NMDB precipitation patterns, and hence net water inflows to the vast Darling River catchment area, numerous (45) possible attributes were assessed for their influence on rainfall trends. Four periods were assessed: annual, April–May (early cool-season), June–September (remaining cool-season), and October–March (warm-season). Linear and non-linear regression machine learning (ML) methods were used to identify the dominant attributes. We show the impact of climate drivers on the increasingly dry April–May months on annual precipitation and warmer temperatures since the early 1990s. The NMDB water supply was further reduced during 1992–2018 by the lack of compensating rainfall trends for the April–May decline. The identified attributes include ENSO, the Southern Annular Mode, the Indian Ocean Dipole, and both local and global sea surface temperatures. A key finding is the prominence of global warming as an attribute, both individually and in combination with other climate drivers.