Australian Police Research Articles

Tradecraft to Standards—Moving Criminal Intelligence Practice to a Profession through the Development of a Criminal Intelligence Training and Development Continuum

Abstract Australian governments, academia, and law enforcement agencies have recognized the need to improve intelligence capabilities in order to adapt to the increasingly complex criminal and security environments. In response, the Australian Criminal Intelligence Commission (ACIC), the Australian Federal Police (AFP) and other Australian policing agencies have adopted several reform measures to improve intelligence capability support. While some have focused on developing specific criminal intelligence doctrine, others have sought to improve more challenging aspects of intelligence capability such as analytical and field collection workforce planning. The complexity of the current and emerging criminal environment and a growing professionalization of policing practice more broadly has resulted in a uniquely new strategic approach to developing the analytical and field collection workforce. This article surveys the development of an Australian Criminal Intel Training and Development Continuum (CITDC). The continuum is an end-to-end continuing professional development framework for criminal intelligence analysts and field intelligence officers that monitor proficiency, competence, and knowledge achievement through pre-entry aptitude testing, rigorous class room, and workplace mentoring. The continuum is designed at the post-graduate level and articulates with Charles Sturt University’s MA (Intelligence Analysis). The article argues that both the philosophy of rigorous standards and the learning underpinning the continuum are having demonstrable and positive outcomes for intelligence practitioners and the investigative workforce they support.

Preventing near-repeat residential burglary through cocooning: post hoc evaluation of a targeted police-led pilot intervention

The Western Australian Police piloted an 8-month small-scale targeted burglary prevention initiative involving distribution of crime prevention pamphlets to burglary victims and their immediate neighbors in the few days directly after victimization. External researchers then undertook a post hoc evaluation of this intervention, examining the impact with a pre- and post-comparison using Ratcliffe’s (Near-repeat calculator (version 1.3), Temple University, Philadelphia, 2009) near-repeat calculator (using 50 m and 5-day intervals for space and time, respectively), analysis of police records relating to the implementation of the intervention, and an online survey of residents who had been scheduled to receive the burglary prevention information. Relative to the pre-intervention period, the near-repeat calculator demonstrated a significant reduction in near-repeat residential burglary (within 0–5 days and 1–200 m from the victim) but no corresponding reduction in same-address repeat victimization (within 0–5 days). Analysis of police records explained this unexpected pattern, revealing an implementation issue had resulted in only 23% of victim addresses receiving the treatment pamphlet. Despite low-response rates to the online survey limiting the strength of the conclusions possible from this data source, trends were indicative of the pamphlet changing residents’ behaviors to reduce the opportunity for burglary. These results add support to prior findings demonstrating police can use victimization information to work in a targeted, timely manner and reduce the risk of burglary. It also emphasizes the importance of good data management practices when undertaking prevention initiatives to ensure programs are delivered as intended.

Influence of community characteristics on serious police use of force events in an Australian policing jurisdiction: a test of minority threat, social disorganisation, and ecological contamination theories

ABSTRACTExtant research on police use of force has established that force is not distributed evenly across communities, with minority threat, ecological contamination, and social disorganisation some of the most common theories used to understand the distribution of police use of force in the US. The current study aimed to test the relevance of these theories for explaining the distribution of serious police use of force events in Australia. We tested a use of force frequency model using negative binomial regression, and a use of force severity model using ordered logistic multilevel modelling. Results demonstrated support for ecological contamination theory, social disorganisation and partial support for socio-economic disadvantage in predicting the frequency of serious police use of force events across communities, while minority threat theory was not supported. In contrast, results suggested that individual and situational factors are more influential in predicting force severity than community characteristics.

Adolescent violence towards parents—Prevalence and characteristics using Australian Police Data

Adolescent violence toward parents is a unique form of family violence which for many, including police personnel, challenges traditional views of parent–child relationship, and raises questions about victimization. There has been minimal research in Australia to date in this area, and knowledge about both prevalence rates and the characteristics of offenders and victims remains limited. This exploratory study utilized police data from four Australian States to document prevalence rates of reported offenses to police, and the characteristics of adolescent violence toward parents in Australia. Between 1% and 7% of family violence reported to the police is adolescent violence toward parents. The “typical” perpetrator is a 15- to 17-year-old Caucasian young man who is generally violent toward his mother. Findings are limited by the differing police practice and policy variations between States, including the use of police discretion, leaving several questions open for further investigation. In conclusion, there is a need for change in policy and practice with regards how best to assess and respond to adolescent violence toward parents.

Depression literacy and help-seeking in Australian police.

To assess depression literacy, help-seeking and help-offering to others in members of the police force in the state of Victoria, Australia. All staff in police stations involved in a cluster randomised controlled trial of an integrated workplace mental health intervention were invited to participate. Survey questions covered sociodemographic and employment information, recognition of depression in a vignette, stigma, treatment beliefs, willingness to assist co-workers with mental health problems, help-giving and help-seeking behaviours, and intentions to seek help. Using the baseline dataset associated with the trial, the paper presents a descriptive analysis of mental health literacy and helping behaviours, comparing police station leaders and lower ranks. Respondents were 806 staff, comprising 618 lower-ranked staff and 188 leaders. Almost 84% of respondents were able to correctly label the problem described in the vignette. Among those who had helped someone with a mental health problem, both lower ranks and leaders most commonly reported 'talking to the person' although leaders were more likely to facilitate professional help. Leaders' willingness to assist the person and confidence in doing so was very high, and over 80% of leaders appropriately rated police psychologists, general practitioners, psychologists, talking to a peer and contacting welfare as helpful. However, among both leaders and lower ranks with mental health problems, the proportion of those unlikely to seek professional help was greater than those who were likely to seek it. Knowledge about evidence-based interventions for depression was lower in this police sample than surveys in the general population, pointing to the need for education and training to improve mental health literacy. Such education should also aim to overcome barriers to professional help-seeking. Interventions that aim to improve mental health literacy and help-seeking behaviour appear to be suitable targets for better protecting police member mental health.

Identifying and characterising the physical demands for an Australian specialist policing unit

Many police organisations incorporate specialist policing roles where incumbents are tasked with providing operational response capabilities above and beyond the general duties policing role. The current research utilised subjective job task analysis methods to identify and characterise the physically demanding, frequently occurring, and operationally important tasks, as well as the dominant fitness component for each task, inherent to specialist policing roles in an Australian policing organisation. This was achieved through engagement with subject matter experts and online survey responses from specialist police incumbents. In total, 11 criterion tasks were identified, which covered a range of physical capacities including muscular strength, muscular endurance, and aerobic power. The most physically demanding tasks included those with an arrest component, requiring high muscular strength and power capacities. Having identified the criterion tasks, three operational scenarios were constructed, which incorporated each of the 11 tasks in different operational contexts. The criterion tasks and composite scenarios will allow practitioners within specialised police units to develop evidence-based strategies, including physical selection procedures and physical training programs, specific to the demands of their work.

Ray Whitrod, 'Before I Sleep: My Life Fighting Crime and Corruption', Brisbane: University of Queensland Press, 2015, 240 pp., IBSN 9 7807 0225 3409, A$32.94

Ray Whitrod, Before I Sleep: My Life Fighting Crime and Corruption, Brisbane: University of Queensland Press, 2015, 240 pp., IBSN 9 7807 0225 3409, A$32.94

Understanding Police Recruits’ Attitudes Toward Public Interactions: An Australian Example

Recent events, particularly in the United States, have highlighted strained police-citizen relations and the importance of citizens viewing police as legitimate and trustworthy. Perceptions of unreasonable police officer conduct, particularly related to demeanor and physical force, are often at the center of public complaints. The present study used survey data to explore the attitudes of 577 Australian police recruits regarding behaving disrespectfully toward, and using force against, citizens. Over all, recruits’ attitudes were positive, likely reflecting present screening processes. However, some variation was evident and predicted by selected police culture dimensions, including cynicism and police authority, as well as officer characteristics and background factors. Further, attitudes more supportive of disrespect and force were, in turn, predictive of the code of silence for such behavior, measured through hypothetical unwillingness to report colleagues’ behavior. The implications for understanding police attitudes are discussed, as well as attempts to reduce negative attitudes and behavior.

ESSENTIAL SERVICE UNIONISM AND THE NEW POLICE INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS

We examined how an Australian police union boasting more than 99 percent density has resisted the trend of decline. The union historically eschewed arbitration and instead used political connections to achieve goals. The environment radically changed with a major corruption report and the introduction of new managerialist techniques. The union reconfigured relationships with management and government but still made use of political action to secure instrumental gains. It has structures and practices that promote perceptions of responsiveness. The union’s support base is built on the foundation of a well-administered legal defense fund. Membership propensity is also a function of the union’s general protective functions, its ability to secure benefits, and a perception of union democracy. The implications for understanding essential-service unionism relate to the political sensitivity of essential services, the nature of risk facing essential-service employees, cultural aspects of essential-service work, as well as some implications common to all unions.

Police interpreting: The facts sheet

AbstractInterpreting for the police is the backbone of legal interpreting. Yet it is grossly overshadowed by the more visible and more public court interpreting. This paper describes the setting of police interpreting, highlighting some of the major issues and challenges in the field that place a lot more than linguistic pressure on the interpreter. It examines the task of interpreters working within the Australian police setting and casts light on three prevailing practices that tend to challenge the interpreter. The practices relate to the selection, briefing, and training of interpreters working for law enforcement investigations. The paper argues that the current training, instructions, and perception of the role of the police interpreter are inadequate. It further argues that for police interpreting to become professional, formal training in the context of police investigations and pre-committal proceedings is required.

Community perceptions of a public sex offender registry introduced in Western Australia

Publically accessible information about sex offenders through an online registry of sex offenders has been a polemic issue for governments, police and the wider community with debate largely driven by community expectations of police ensuring the safety of children and women from sexual predators. In October 2012, Western Australia became the first and currently only state or territory in Australia to allow public access to a three tiered register via the Community Protection Website (CPW) that would be monitored by West Australian Police. The introduction of this website triggered significant debate across the country. A survey was developed to capture the opinions of members of the public who had accessed the online registry to understand their views of the online tool and its purpose as a form of community safety. Findings from the survey reveal that the community lacks understanding of the prevalence of child sexual abuse and the fact that a child is more likely to experience sexual victimization within the family unit. There is also a need for greater community education and awareness about the purpose and limitations of the CPW as many believed that all sex known sex offenders are publicly registered, therefore creating a false sense of security.

Can positive faith-based encounters influence Australian young people’s drinking behaviours?

Purpose: Alcohol-related accidents and injuries occur disproportionately within young people – especially when gathering at social events. This study represents a partnership between a faith-based group of volunteers specifically trained to counsel and support young people to reduce their risk of alcohol-related harm, Adelaide City Council, and the South Australian Police Force aimed at reducing risk-related alcohol consumption in a metropolitan nightclub district area. It posits that supporting young people to party safely, alongside positive community engagement, may deter unsafe consumption practices – such as pre-loading and binge-drinking. Methods: Retrospective online survey evaluated the impact on attitudes of young people who received the intervention. Results: Findings suggest volunteers were perceived as positive role models who demonstrated a genuine sense of care and ability to support. As a result, one-third of respondents identified potentially more carefully pre-plan their drinking behaviour on their next night out. Conclusion: This study demonstrates that young people are responsive to positive interventions and that future pre-planning may become a more natural part of their party routine – resulting in less likelihood of alcohol-related risk. The outcome measure, that young people’s intentions to moderate their drinking as a result of positive encounters, is an important one.

The deterrent effects of Australian street-level drug law enforcement on illicit drug offending at outdoor music festivals

BackgroundAustralian and international street-level drug law enforcement deploy many strategies in efforts to prevent or deter illicit drug offending. Limited evidence of deterrence exists. This study assessed the likely impacts of four Australian policing strategies on the incidence and nature of drug use and supply at a common policing target: outdoor music festivals. MethodsA purpose-built national online survey (the Drug Policing Survey) was constructed using five hypothetical experimental vignettes that took into account four policing strategies (High Visibility Policing, Riot Policing, Collaborative Policing, and policing with Drug Detection Dogs) and a counter-factual (no police presence). The survey was administered in late 2015 to 2115 people who regularly attend festivals. Participants were block-randomised to receive two vignettes and asked under each whether they would use, possess, purchase, give or sell illicit drugs. ResultsCompared to ‘no police presence’, any police presence led to a 4.6% point reduction in engagement in overall illicit drug offending: reducing in particular willingness to possess or carry drugs into a festival. However, it had minimal or counterproductive impacts on purchasing and supply. For example, given police presence, purchasing of drugs increased significantly within festival grounds. Offending impacts varied between the four policing strategies: Drug Detection Dogs most reduced drug possession but High Visibility Policing most reduced overall drug offending including supply. Multivariate logistic regression showed police presence was not the most significant predictor of offending decisions at festivals. ConclusionConclusionThe findings suggest that street-level policing may deter some forms of drug offending at music festivals, but that most impacts will be small. Moreover, it may encourage some perverse impacts such as drug consumers opting to buy drugs within festival grounds rather than carry in their own. We use our findings to highlight trade-offs between the goals of public health promotion and crime control in street-level enforcement.

Building peace abroad and coming back home: experiences of Swedish police officers

ABSTRACTEver since the Swedish Police Authority established a unit for Peace Support Operations in 2000, approximately 70–110 Swedish police officers have participated in peacebuilding missions around the globe on an annual basis. This signifies that a substantial number of Swedish police officers have gained practical experience of assisting post-conflict states to rebuild their societies, reform their security sectors and establish a police force that acts in accordance with the principles of democratic policing. However, to date, there is no research that has set out to investigate these police officers’ experiences; not only of building peace abroad within the framework of democratic policing, but also of coming back home to reengage in Swedish police work. In this paper we begin to address this research gap. We do so through a number of qualitative interviews with Swedish police officers who have recent experiences of participating in peacebuilding missions in Liberia, Kosovo and Haiti. The findings show that despite certain obstacles, the police officers find ways to conduct police work in a manner that they believe supports the advancement of a democratic police force, and that their overall sentiment of building peace abroad is positive. However, their experiences of returning home to reengage in Swedish police work are less satisfactory. Officers express frustration that new insights and new knowledge gained abroad do not seem to be valued by the Swedish Police Authority. This is a finding that aligns with results from previous studies on Canadian and Australian police officers.

Improving police risk assessment and management of family violence through a collaboration between law enforcement, forensic mental health and academia

PurposePolice play an essential role in reducing harms associated with family violence by identifying people at increased risk of physical or mental health-related harm and linking them with support services. Yet police are often poorly trained and resourced to conduct the kind of assessments necessary to identify family violence cases presenting with increased risk. The paper aims to discuss this issue.Design/methodology/approachThis paper describes a multi-project collaboration between law enforcement, forensic mental health, and academia that has over three years worked to improve risk assessment and management of family violence by police in Victoria, Australia.FindingsEvaluation of existing risk assessment instruments used by the state-wide police force showed they were ineffective in predicting future police reports of family violence (AUC=0.54-0.56). However, the addition of forensic psychology expertise to specialist family violence teams increased the number of risk management strategies implemented by police, and suggested that the Brief Spousal Assault Form for the Evaluation of Risk assessment instrument may be appropriate for use by Australian police (AUC=0.63).Practical implicationsThe practical implications of this study are as follows: police risk assessment procedures should be subject to independent evaluation to determine whether they are performing as intended; multidisciplinary collaboration within police units can improve police practice; drawing on expertise from agencies external to police offers a way to improve evidence-based policing, and structured professional judgement risk assessment can be used in policing contexts with appropriate training and support.Originality/valueThe paper describes an innovative collaboration between police, mental health, and academia that is leading to improved police practices in responding to family violence. It includes data from the first evaluation of an Australian risk assessment instrument for family violence, and describes methods of improving police systems for responding to family violence.

Ten key developments in modern policing: an Australian perspective

In this paper we endeavour to isolate the top ten innovations and developments that have occurred in policing in the last thirty years. We consider that each of them brought about a new mindset, pattern or trend into contemporary police practice. We have focused our attention on the last thirty years because it is during this time that we have both maintained a keen academic interest in the field. While we have focused our attention on the way in which each has affected Australian policing, we are cognisant of the fact that many of them had their roots in other settings long before Australian policy-makers adopted or adapted them.

Stress of underworked and overpaid

Purpose Frequent absences from work can be highly disruptive, while also potentially indicating problematic working conditions that can lead to increased withdrawal behavior. The purpose of this paper is to test the predictive capability of an expanded effort-reward imbalance model on employee absenteeism within the context of policing. Design/methodology/approach Three separate reward systems are identified by the effort-reward imbalance model. In this study, the authors assessed these individual components for their contribution to officer withdrawal behavior in the form of absenteeism frequency. Data were gathered from officers within a large Australian police agency. Findings Findings indicate that there was a strong influence of social rewards, such as social support and recognition in the workplace on officer absenteeism rates. Low workload was associated with a higher frequency of absenteeism, suggesting a potential underloading effect. There were a number of significant interactions providing support for the effort-reward imbalance mechanism and the separation of the reward construct. Security rewards were particularly influential and significantly moderated the relationship between effort and absenteeism. Originality/value This paper considers an expanded model of worker strain and contributes a longitudinal assessment of the association between perceived effort and reward systems and worker absenteeism.

Big forensic data management in heterogeneous distributed systems: quick analysis of multimedia forensic data

SummaryThe growth in the data volume and number of evidential data from heterogeneous distributed systems in smart cities, such as cloud and fog computing systems and Internet‐of‐Things devices (e.g. IP‐based CCTVs), has led to increased collection, processing and analysis times, potentially resulting in vulnerable persons (e.g. victims of terrorism incidents) being at risk. A process of Digital Forensic Data Reduction of source multimedia and forensic images has provided a method to reduce the collection time and volume of data. In this paper, a methodology of Digital Forensic Quick Analysis is outlined, which describes a method to review Digital Forensic Data Reduction subsets to pinpoint relevant evidence and intelligence from heterogeneous distributed systems in a timely manner. Applying the proposed methodology to real‐world data from an Australian police agency highlighted the timeliness of the process, resulting in significant improvements in processing times in comparison with processing a full forensic image. The Quick Analysis methodology, combined with Digital Forensic Data Reduction, has potential to locate evidence and intelligence in a timely manner. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

An application of an extended effort-reward imbalance model to police absenteeism behaviour

Purpose– Frequent absences from work can be highly disruptive, whilst also potentially indicating problematic working conditions that can lead to increased withdrawal behaviour. The purpose of this paper is to test the predictive capability of an expanded effort-reward imbalance model on employee absenteeism within the context of policing.Design/methodology/approach– Three separate reward systems are identified by the effort-reward imbalance model. In this study, the authors assessed these individual components for their contribution to officer withdrawal behaviour in the form of absenteeism frequency. Data were gathered from a sample of operational officers (n=553) within a large Australian police agency.Findings– Findings indicate that there was a strong influence of social rewards such as social support and recognition in the workplace on officer absenteeism rates. Low workload was associated with a higher frequency of absenteeism suggesting a potential underloading effect. There were a number of significant interactions providing support for the effort-reward imbalance mechanism and the separation of the reward construct. Security rewards were particularly influential and significantly moderated the relationship between effort and absenteeism.Research limitations/implications– Differential effects of occupational rewards were identified in the study, indicating that there are significant opportunities for expansion of the effort-reward imbalance model along with opportunities for HRM practitioners in terms of employee recognition and remuneration programmes. This research was focused on a specific sample of operational officers, therefore should be expanded to include multiple occupational groups.Originality/value– This paper considers and expanded model of worker strain and contributes a longitudinal assessment of the association between perceived effort and reward systems and worker absenteeism.

Systematic review of Australian policing interventions to reduce alcohol-related violence — A maxillofacial perspective

Alcohol-related violence remains to be a health concern, and the oral and maxillofacial surgeons are routinely exposed to its impact on the victims and the healthcare system. At a community level, various policing interventions have been implemented to address this violent crime in and around licensed premises. Current study sought to examine the effectiveness of these interventions in Australia. Ten eligible studies, that evaluated the impact of 15 Australian policing interventions on reducing alcohol-related violence in the night-time economy, were included in this systematic review. Due to the heterogeneity of the study designs and the insufficiency of the reported data, quantitative meta-analysis of the findings was precluded. Instead, a critical narrative approach was used. Police-recorded assault rate was the primary outcome measured to assess the level of alcohol-related violence, which was influenced by the level of police duties implemented during the intervention period. The overall evidence base to support Australian policing interventions was found to be poor and was limited by the low-quality study design observed in the majority of the included studies. However, there is some evidence to suggest interventions involving proactive policing to be more effective than traditional reactive policing. There was also an increased emphasis on developing policing interventions in collaborative partnerships, demonstrating the synergistic benefits in crime prevention through community partnerships, where communities were encouraged to take ownerships of their own problems and develop targeted responses to alcohol-related violence rather than a one-size-fits-all approach. Further research is required to define their effectiveness with the use of more appropriate and robust methodologies.