Auditory Temporal Order Research Articles

A common timing mechanism across different millisecond domains: evidence from perceptual and motor tasks

Temporal information processing (TIP) constitutes a complex construct that underlies many cognitive functions and operates in a few hierarchically ordered time domains. This study aimed to verify the relationship between the tens of milliseconds and hundreds of milliseconds domains, referring to perceptual and motor timing, respectively. Sixty four young healthy individuals participated in this study. They underwent two auditory temporal order judgement tasks to assess their performance in the tens of milliseconds domain; on this basis, groups of high-level performers (HLP) and low-level performers (LLP) were identified. Then, a maximum tapping task was used to evaluate performance in the hundreds of milliseconds domain. The most remarkable result was that HLP achieved a faster tapping rate and synchronised quicker with their “internal clock” during the tapping task than did LLP. This result shows that there is a relationship between accuracy in judging temporally asynchronous stimuli and ability to achieve and maintain the pace of a movement adequate to one’s internal pacemaker. This could indicate the strong contribution of a common timing mechanism, responsible for temporal organisation and coordination of behaviours across different millisecond domains.

Aging and auditory temporal ordering

Abstract Background The aging process is characterized by a gradual impairment of several capacities, such as hearing, memory and communication, which implies changes at various levels and, consequently, changes in both hearing and auditory skills, of which the auditory temporal ordering is an example. Methods The sample consisted of 23 elderly individuals, aged between 70 and 96 years (average of 83.09 years) and with mild to severe type I sensorineural hearing loss. For the collection of information, the pure tone audiogram, the frequency and duration pattern tests, the verbal and non-verbal sequential memory tests were used. Results The results revealed that between age and the auditory temporal order tests there was a negative correlation (except in the duration pattern test in the left ear) and between the auditory threshold and the auditory temporal order tests there was negative correlation (except in the duration pattern test in the right ear). Conclusions It is concluded that in this sample the ability of auditory temporal ordering was influenced by aging and hearing loss, which shows that as the age of the elderly progresses and the degree of hearing loss increases the difficulties in temporal auditory processing become larger. This leads us to consider that these elderly have several difficulties in temporal auditory processing and that an intervention as auditory training may be advantageous for the elderly, as it could improve their central auditory processing and, consequently, their hearing, memory and quality of life.

Evidence for a general impairment of auditory and visual temporal order judgment in children with reading disabilities

Objectives: This study examined visual and auditory processing of children with reading disabilities (RD) to determine whether they show an impaired ability to judge a reading-related process such as temporal order of events and clarify whether or not this deficit is linked to rapid processing deficit. Method: The performance of 16 children with RD was compared with the performance of children in two control groups – one for chronological age (CA) and one for the same reading level –, doing visual and auditory temporal order tasks, both with linguistic and non-linguistic stimuli with inter-stimuli-intervals of 50, 150, or 300 ms. Results: The RD group performance was lower than the performance of the CA group in tasks requiring auditory temporal order processing for linguistic and non-linguistic stimuli. Regarding visual tasks, the RD group performed worse than both control groups in processing non-linguistic stimuli. In general, performance in every group decreased with decreasing inter-stimulus-interval (ISIs), suggesting that children with RD do not have impairments in the speed of perceptual processing. Conclusions: The perceptual problems of children with RD are better explained by temporal order processing problems than by difficulties in rapid processing. Inclusion of temporal order processing tasks in the evaluation of children with RD is recommended.

Auditory Temporal Ordering in Patients with Medial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy with and without Hippocampal Sclerosis.

Temporal lobe epilepsy can affect central auditory processing (CAP) skills. Auditory temporal ordering (ATO) is a CAP skill that can be evaluated using duration pattern test (DPT). The aim is to evaluate ATO in patients with medial temporal lobe epilepsy (MTLE) with hippocampal sclerosis (MTLE + HS) and without hippocampal sclerosis (MTLE-HS) and in their subgroups. It was a prospective cross-sectional behavioral observational study conducted in a tertiary neuropsychiatric hospital. The subjects were patients with refractory MTLE (N = 100), comprising 50 "MTLE + HS" patients and 50 "MTLE-HS". Age-range matched normal healthy subjects (n = 50) formed the control group. Both groups were administered duration pattern test (DPT). Analysis of variance (ANOVA) with post hoc analysis, Dunnett's two-sided and Bonferroni, paired sample t-test, Pearson's correlation, and independent t-test. The clinical groups performed significantly poorer than the control group, and however, did not differ significantly between them. The age at onset and the duration of the seizures did not have significant relation with the test measures. Patients with "MTLE + HS" as well as those with "MTLE-HS" and their respective subgroups revealed abnormal ATO indicating CAP dysfunction.

Short-term cognitive fatigue effect on auditory temporal order judgments

Fatigue is a core symptom in many psychological disorders and it can strongly influence everyday productivity. As fatigue effects have been typically demonstrated after long hours of time on task, it was surprising that in a previous study, we accidentally found a decline of temporal order judgment (TOJ) performance within 5–8 min. After replicating prior relevant findings we tested whether pauses and/or feedback relating the participant’s performance to some “standard” can eliminate or reduce this short-term performance decline. We also assessed whether the performance decline is specific to the processes evoked by the TOJ task or it is a product of either general inattentiveness or the lack of willingness to thoroughly follow the task instructions. We found that both feedback and introducing pauses between successive measurements can largely reduce the performance decline, and that these two manipulations likely mobilize overlapping capacities. Performance decline was not present in a similar task when controlling for the TOJ threshold and it was not a result of uncooperative behavior. Therefore, we conclude that the TOJ threshold decline is either specific to temporal processing in general or to the TOJ task employed in the study. Overall, the results are compatible with the notion that the decline of TOJ threshold with repeated measures represents a short-term cognitive fatigue effect. This objective fatigue measure did not correlate with subjective fatigue. The latter was rather related to perceived difficulty/effort, the reduction of positive affectivity, heightened sensitivity to criticism, and the best TOJ threshold.

Auditory, Visual, and Cross-Modal Temporal Processing Skills Among Chinese Children With Developmental Dyslexia

The present study examined whether temporal processing (TP) is associated with reading of a non-alphabetic script, that is, Chinese. A total of 126 primary school–aged Chinese children from Taiwan (63 children with dyslexia) completed cross-modal, visual, and auditory temporal order judgment tasks and measures of Chinese reading and literacy-related skills. The results showed that typically developing children and children with dyslexia differed in all TP skills. Structural equation modeling indicated that cross-modal TP contributed independently to character recognition in the entire sample if the significant effects of phonological awareness, orthographic knowledge, and rapid automatized naming were considered. The multi-sample analysis showed that TP did not predict reading in the typical group after controlling for literacy-related skills, but visual and cross-modal TP skills independently contributed to reading in the group with dyslexia in addition to literacy-related skills. Finally, the path analysis indicated that in the typical group, separate TP skills affected reading through literacy-related skills, but visual and cross-modal TP skills had direct effects on character reading in the group with dyslexia. These findings suggest that TP is more important for reading in children with dyslexia than in typically developing children, and the roles of TP in dyslexia require further examination.

Temporal ordering and reading competence of words and pseudowords: a preliminary study.

Purpose Analyze the association of simple and complex auditory temporal ordering skills with reading competence tasks in students. Methods Pilot phase of a cross-sectional study conducted with a non-probabilistic sample of 22 schoolchildren aged eight to ten years. Instruments for evaluation of reading competence tasks and simple and complex auditory temporal ordering abilities were used. Results Most participants obtained adequate results in the tests of simple auditory temporal ordering (SATO) and reading competence (RC), but inadequate results in the test of complex auditory temporal ordering (CATO). The association of reading competence with temporal processing showed no statistical significance. Conclusion The study evidenced the importance to conduct more robust studies on the theme and the viability of data collection in the school scenario.

The effect of stimulus frequency, spectrum, duration, and location on temporal order judgment thresholds: distribution analysis.

The present study aimed to examine whether the judgments of temporal order are made by the same "central processor" regardless of the characteristics of the sound stimuli. The influence of stimulus parameters (e.g., frequency, spectrum, duration, location) on auditory temporal order judgment (TOJ) thresholds was tested in seven groups with a total of 192 participants received two-tone sequences of different: frequencies (3 groups); spectrum widths, via a pure tone and a Gaussian noise burst (1 group); durations (2 groups); or locations, via asynchronous presentation to each ear (1 group). No difference in the mean rankings of TOJ thresholds was found for frequency, spectrum, and location parameters. TOJ thresholds for the duration condition, however, were significantly longer than for any of the other conditions. Notably, the threshold distributions for all the parameters (frequency, spectrum, duration, location) differed in shape. These findings raise the question as to whether we can rely upon the mean or median threshold as truly representative of TOJ threshold data. Furthermore, the data suggest that temporal order judgments for the different stimulus parameters are processed differently. The differences observed when analyzing the data with central tendency measures, as compared to analyzing the threshold distributions, may explain some of the mixed results reported in the literature on the mechanisms involved in temporal processing of different parameters. Stimulus parameters influence TOJ threshold distributions and response patterns, and may provide additional cues, beyond the standard temporal cue inherent in the TOJ procedure, by which participants may judge the order of the stimuli.

The Effect of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Methylphenidate Treatment on the Adult Auditory Temporal Order Judgment Threshold.

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition notes that attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) diagnosed in childhood will persist into adulthood among at least some individuals. There is a paucity of evidence, however, regarding whether other difficulties that often accompany childhood ADHD will also continue into adulthood, specifically auditory processing deficits. The aim of this study was to examine the effect of ADHD and the stimulant medication methylphenidate on auditory perception performance among adults. A total of 33 adults diagnosed with ADHD according to Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition criteria (ADHD group) and 48 adults without ADHD (non-ADHD group) performed an auditory temporal order judgment task. Participants with ADHD performed the task twice: with and without taking methylphenidate (Ritalin), in random order. Temporal order judgment thresholds of the ADHD group were significantly higher than those of the non-ADHD group. Methylphenidate significantly decreased temporal order judgment thresholds within the ADHD group, making their performance similar to the non-ADHD participants. Auditory processing difficulties of those diagnosed with ADHD seem to persist into adulthood. Similar to findings with children, methylphenidate treatment improves performance on tasks requiring this ability among adults. Therefore, given the association between auditory temporal processing and linguistic skills, the beneficial effect of methylphenidate on adults' academic achievement may be accomplished by positively affecting auditory temporal processing. Further studies in this line of research are needed.

Auditory spectral versus spatial temporal order judgment: Threshold distribution analysis.

Some researchers suggested that one central mechanism is responsible for temporal order judgments (TOJ), within and across sensory channels. This suggestion is supported by findings of similar TOJ thresholds in same modality and cross-modality TOJ tasks. In the present study, we challenge this idea by analyzing and comparing the threshold distributions of the spectral and spatial TOJ tasks. In spectral TOJ, the tones differ in their frequency ("high" and "low") and are delivered either binaurally or monaurally. In spatial (or dichotic) TOJ, the two tones are identical but are presented asynchronously to the two ears and thus differ with respect to which ear received the first tone and which ear received the second tone ("left"/"left"). Although both tasks are regarded as measures of auditory temporal processing, a review of data published in the literature suggests that they trigger different patterns of response. The aim of the current study was to systematically examine spectral and spatial TOJ threshold distributions across a large number of studies. Data are based on 388 participants in 13 spectral TOJ experiments, and 222 participants in 9 spatial TOJ experiments. None of the spatial TOJ distributions deviated significantly from the Gaussian; while all of the spectral TOJ threshold distributions were skewed to the right, with more than half of the participants accurately judging temporal order at very short interstimulus intervals (ISI). The data do not support the hypothesis that 1 central mechanism is responsible for all temporal order judgments. We suggest that different perceptual strategies are employed when performing spectral TOJ than when performing spatial TOJ. We posit that the spectral TOJ paradigm may provide the opportunity for two-tone masking or temporal integration, which is sensitive to the order of the tones and thus provides perceptual cues that may be used to judge temporal order. This possibility should be considered when interpreting spectral TOJ data, especially in the context of comparing different populations. (PsycINFO Database Record

Formal Auditory Training with Individuals after Traumatic Brain Injury

Purpose: Establishing the effects of a formal auditory training program on individuals, after a traumatic brain injury by means of behavioral and electrophysiological tests. Study Design: Longitudinal study. Setting: Study conducted at the electrophysiology clinic of the Federal University of Sao Paulo. Patients: Nine individuals with normal hearing, 20 to 37 years old, who were exposed to severe traumatic brain injury (score of 3 - 8 on the Glasgow Coma Scale upon hospital admission), 6 - 24 months earlier (11 months on average) and had imaging tests showing diffuse axonal injury with or without associated focal lesion. Intervention(s): subjected to a formal auditory training program in an acoustic booth involving eight 45-minute sessions aiming at training the auditory temporal order judgment (frequency and duration of sounds), auditory closure, and figure-ground separation skills for verbal and nonverbal sounds in monotic and dichotic listening tasks. The sessions and activities, in each session, were organized in increasing order of complexity to challenge the auditory system. In order to establish the efficacy of the auditory training, all participants were subjected to behavioral and electrophysiological assessments of the auditory processing, before and after the formal auditory training. Results: On the electrophysiological assessment, the absolute latencies of waves III and V, and of interpeak interval I-V decreased after the auditory training. However, the P300 did not exhibit a significant difference in either the latency or the amplitude parameters. Regarding the behavioral assessment of the auditory processing, it was verified that adequacy of the auditory figure-ground skills for verbal sounds, and the temporal order judging skills. Conclusions: individuals with diffuse axonal injury following a severe traumatic brain injury exhibited an improvement of central auditory processing after formal auditory training, as manifested on electrophysiological and behavioral assessments.

Temporal auditory aspects in children with poor school performance and associated factors.

To investigate the auditory temporal aspects in children with poor school performance aged 7-12 years and their association with behavioral aspects, health perception, school and health profiles, and sociodemographic factors. This is an observational, analytical, transversal study including 89 children with poor school performance aged 7-12 years enrolled in the municipal public schools of a municipality in Minas Gerais state, participants of Specialized Educational Assistance. The first stage of the study was conducted with the subjects' parents aiming to collect information on sociodemographic aspects, health profile, and educational records. In addition, the parents responded to the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). The second stage was conducted with the children in order to investigate their health self-perception and analyze the auditory assessment, which consisted of meatoscopy, Transient Otoacoustic Emissions, and tests that evaluated the aspects of simple auditory temporal ordering and auditory temporal resolution. Tests assessing the temporal aspects of auditory temporal processing were considered as response variables, and the explanatory variables were grouped for univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses. The level of significance was set at 5%. Significant statistical correlation was found between the auditory temporal aspects and the variables age, gender, presence of repetition, and health self-perception. Children with poor school performance presented changes in the auditory temporal aspects. The temporal abilities assessed suggest association with different factors such as maturational process, health self-perception, and school records.

A Influência do ruído na habilidade auditiva de ordenação temporal para sons verbais

OBJETIVO: apurar a relação entre o ruído presente em sala de aula e a habilidade auditiva de ordenação temporal para sons verbais. MÉTODOS: estudo descritivo transversal, com amostra de 209 estudantes com idade entre sete e dez anos. Foi realizada a avaliação do ruído em 13 salas de aula de oito escolas públicas municipais de Belo Horizonte, por meio da medição do parâmetro acústico nível de pressão sonora equivalente, com as salas de aula vazias e mobiliadas, de acordo com a norma American National Standards Institute (ANSI) S12.60. Para avaliar a habilidade auditiva de ordenação temporal para sons verbais nos estudantes, foi utilizado o teste de memória sequencial verbal. Para fins de análise estatística, o ruído foi categorizado pelo valor da mediana e relacionado aos resultados dos estudantes no teste. RESULTADOS: a maioria dos alunos apresentou resultado normal no teste e não houve diferença em relação ao gênero e à idade. Todas as salas de aula apresentaram valores de nível de pressão sonora equivalente acima do preconizado pelas normas regulamentadoras internacionais (ANSI S12.60 e Bulletin 93) e nacional (Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas -NBR10152). Ao relacionar o ruído com o desempenho dos alunos no teste, houve diferença, com maior ocorrência de alterações nos alunos pertencentes às salas mais ruidosas. CONCLUSÃO: os níveis de ruído mensurados nas salas de aula estão acima do permitido pelas normas e constatou-se relação entre ruído presente na sala de aula e maior dificuldade na habilidade auditiva de ordenação temporal.

Temporal Processing Test: Analysis Facility by Subject

Introduction: The auditory temporal ordering ability refers to the processing of multiple auditory stimuli, and these are influenced by order of their occurrence in time. This ability has many perceptual and cognitive processes participants. This way it is considered one of the most important functions of the central nervous system since the speech and language understanding are dependent on the capacity to work with the sound sequence.

Effect of 24 Hours of Sleep Deprivation on Auditory and Linguistic Perception: A Comparison Among Young Controls, Sleep-Deprived Participants, Dyslexic Readers, and Aging Adults

To test the effects of 24 hr of sleep deprivation on auditory and linguistic perception and to assess the magnitude of this effect by comparing such performance with that of aging adults on speech perception and with that of dyslexic readers on phonological awareness. Fifty-five sleep-deprived young adults were compared with 29 aging adults (older than 60 years) and with 18 young controls on auditory temporal order judgment (TOJ) and on speech perception tasks (Experiment 1). The sleep deprived were also compared with 51 dyslexic readers and with the young controls on TOJ and phonological awareness tasks (One-Minute Test for Pseudowords, Phoneme Deletion, Pig Latin, and Spoonerism; Experiment 2). Sleep deprivation resulted in longer TOJ thresholds, poorer speech perception, and poorer nonword reading compared with controls. The TOJ thresholds of the sleep deprived were comparable to those of the aging adults, but their pattern of speech performance differed. They also performed better on TOJ and phonological awareness than dyslexic readers. A variety of linguistic skills are affected by sleep deprivation. The comparison of sleep-deprived individuals with other groups with known difficulties in these linguistic skills might suggest that different groups exhibit common difficulties.

Auditory temporal processing abilities in early azari-persian bilinguals.

Auditory temporal resolution and auditory temporal ordering are two major components of the auditory temporal processing abilities that contribute to speech perception and language development. Auditory temporal resolution and auditory temporal ordering can be evaluated by gap-in-noise (GIN) and pitch-pattern-sequence (PPS) tests, respectively. In this survey, the effect of bilingualism as a potential confounding factor on auditory temporal processing abilities was investigated in early Azari-Persian bilinguals. In this cross-sectional non-interventional study, GIN and PPS tests were performed on 24 (12 men and 12 women) early Azari-Persian bilingual persons and 24 (12 men and 12 women) Persian monolingual subjects in the age range of 18-30 years, with a mean age of 24.57 years in bilingual and 24.68 years in monolingual subjects. Data were analyzed with t-test using SPSS software version 16. There was no statistically significant difference between mean gap threshold and mean percentages of the correct response of the GIN test and average percentage of correct responses in the PPS test between early Azari-Persian bilinguals and Persian monolinguals (P≥0.05). According to the findings of this study, bilingualism did not have notable effect on auditory temporal processing abilities.

An Introduction to the Special Issue on Multisensory Perception

The annual meeting of the International Multisensory Research Forum (IMRF) in 2011 was initially to be held in June, in downtown Sendai, Japan. Three months before the date, the mega-earthquake devastated the northeast area of Japan, and subsequent tsunami hit its coastline. Downtown Sendai is 15 km from the coast and was not significantly affected by the tsunami. However, it is located to the direct west of the epicenter, and the conference venue and the public transportation were so badly damaged that we could not expect then their recovery in time. Therefore, we decided to postpone the conference and move its location; the meeting was held on October 17–20 in Fukuoka, Japan. Although a few delegates could not attend the conference with new date and location, IMRF 2011 was successful with presentations all relating to multisensory research by researchers from a wide range of disciplines. We are delighted that this special issue is published in i-Perception, the first time for the IMRF. Contributions to the conference on various aspects of multisensory perception resulted in seven articles in this special issue. The first three papers report studies on the interaction between two sensory inputs, for example, audiovisual integration. Leone and McCourt (2013) revealed a new aspect of facilitative audiovisual integration that disagrees with the well-known idea of inverse effectiveness. Tanabe and Iwaki (2013) found perceptual effects of visual spatial information on auditory temporal order judgments and simultaneity judgments. Speech-oriented research by Spector and Maurer (2013) suggested naturally biased correspondences between vowel sound and shape, investigating the influence of vowels on sound–shape matching in toddlers. The second aspect addresses multisensory situations involving a dynamic perceiver. The interaction between body movement and other major senses has attracted increasing interest, particularly those researchers who are familiar with virtual reality technologies. On visuo-motor coordination, Kitazaki (2013) revealed that visuo-motor adaptation was transferable from right to left, between upper and lower, between central and peripheral visual fields. On auditory–motor coordination, Honda et al. (2013) showed that free head movements and proprioceptive feedback during sound localization training enhance perceptual motor learning. The last aspect of multisensory perception covered in this special issue is about understanding human perception in natural and practical environments. Jola et al. (2013) used fMRI to measure brain activities when observers were watching and/or listening to a long movie of Indian dance, that is, relatively in natural viewing conditions. Seya, Nakayasu, and Yagi (2013) used a driving simulator to define the spatial distribution of useful field of view in driving by measuring reaction times and eye movements. We hope that readers will enjoy the diversity of topics in research on multisensory perception. Additionally, it is our great pleasure to share some of the fruitful outcomes of the conference as the last part of the IMRF 2011 organizing project.

Effect of Visual Stimuli on Temporal Order Judgments of a Sequence of Pure Tones

We investigated what effect visual spatial information had on auditory temporal order judgments (TOJs) and examined what effect visual stimuli had on the TOJs of sequences of pure tones in experiment 1. The auditory stimuli were sequences of four distinct pure tones. The visual stimuli consisted of two vertically aligned flashes: one flashed before the first tone and the other flashed after the last tone. Participants judged whether the temporal order of the second and third tones in auditory stimuli occurred with the higher tone being first or the lower tone being first. As a result, the proportion of responses for higher-tone-first increased when the flash of the upper LED preceded that of the lower LED, independent of the actual temporal order. Participants in experiment 2 were asked to make simultaneity judgments instead, which were also affected by visual stimuli. The auditory stimuli in experiment 3 were the same as those in experiment 1, whereas the visual stimuli consisted of two horizontally aligned flashes. Furthermore, the participants made TOJs, which were not affected by the horizontally aligned visual stimuli. We concluded that vertically aligned visual stimuli had an effect on auditory TOJs with some response bias.

Evidence for multisensory integration in the elicitation of prior entry by bimodal cues

This study reports an experiment investigating the relative effects of intramodal, crossmodal and bimodal cues on visual and auditory temporal order judgements. Pairs of visual or auditory targets, separated by varying stimulus onset asynchronies, were presented to either side of a central fixation (±45°), and participants were asked to identify the target that had occurred first. In some of the trials, one of the targets was preceded by a short, non-predictive visual, auditory or audiovisual cue stimulus. The cue and target stimuli were presented at the exact same locations in space. The point of subjective simultaneity revealed a consistent spatiotemporal bias towards targets at the cued location. For the visual targets, the intramodal cue elicited the largest, and the crossmodal cue the smallest, bias. The bias elicited by the bimodal cue fell between the intramodal and crossmodal cue biases, with significant differences between all cue types. The pattern for the auditory targets was similar apart from a scaling factor and greater variance, so the differences between the cue conditions did not reach significance. These results provide evidence for multisensory integration in exogenous attentional cueing. The magnitude of the bimodal cueing effect was equivalent to the average of the facilitation elicited by the intramodal and crossmodal cues. Under the assumption that the visual and auditory cues were equally informative, this is consistent with the notion that exogenous attention, like perception, integrates multimodal information in an optimal way.

Auditory Temporal Processing and Working Memory: Two Independent Deficits for Dyslexia

Dyslexia is a neuro-cognitive disorder with a strong genetic basis, characterized by a difficulty in acquiring reading skills. Several hypotheses have been suggested in an attempt to explain the origin of dyslexia, among which some have suggested that dyslexic readers might have a deficit in auditory temporal processing, while others hypothesized that dyslexia origins from a deficit in working memory. The current study was designed to test whether working memory and/or auditory temporal processing can predict reading ability in normal and dyslexic readers. Fifty-three adults were diagnosed with phonological dyslexia and 46 normal reading adults were tested on reading regular words, auditory temporal order judgment, and backward digit span. The results are that: For dyslexic readers, both auditory temporal processing and working memory are correlated with reading, even after controlling for their covariance. However, no correlation between reading measures, temporal processing and working memory are found for normal readers. The conclusions are that: (1) Both auditory temporal processing and working memory are significantly involved in reading among dyslexic readers; and (2) Dyslexic readers might use more different reading strategies than normal readers do, who apparently are not involved in auditory temporal processing and working memory while reading.