Auditory Icons Research Articles

Representative Auditory Warning Signals: Methodological Considerations for Their Development and Selection

The work focuses on an initial effort to develop a selection methodology (Free Meaning Response, Perceived Urgency, and Perceived Association with an experimenter-selected meaning) for representative auditory warnings, also known as “auditory icons”, a new class of auditory warning signals. Further, the need to consider population differences and testing environment when using the above methodology is experimentally demonstrated. Finally, hypotheses related to situations where representative auditory warning signals may/may not be most effective, specifically, issues related to masking (when the noise and signal spectra are similar) and the conveyance of abstract ideas (very difficult with auditory icons) are presented.

Use of auditory icons as emergency warnings: evaluation within a vehicle collision avoidance application

In the context of emergency warnings, auditory icons, which convey information about system events by analogy with everyday events, have the potential to be understood more quickly and easily than abstract sounds. To test this proposal, an experiment was carried out to evaluate the use of auditory icons for an invehicle collision avoidance application. Two icons, the sounds of a car horn and of skidding tyres, were compared with two conventional warnings, a simple tone and a voice saying ‘ahead’. Participants sat in an experimental vehicle with a road scene projected ahead, and they were required to brake in response to on-screen collision situations and their accompanying warning sounds. The auditory icons produced significantly faster reaction times than the conventional warnings, but suffered from more inappropriate responses, where drivers reacted with a brake press to a non-collision situation. The findings are explained relative to the perceived urgency and inherent meaning of each sound. It is argued that optimal warnings could be achieved by adjusting certain sound attributes of auditory icons, as part of a structured, user-centred design and evaluation procedure.

Auditory Icons as Impending Collision System Warning Signals in Commercial Motor Vehicles

This simulator-based study examined the use of conventional auditory warnings (tonal, non-verbal sounds) and auditory icons (representational, non-verbal sounds), alone and in combination with a dash-mounted visual display to warn commercial motor vehicle operators of impending front-to-rear and side collision situations. Driver performance was measured in the simulated driving task via brake response time in the front-to-rear collision scenarios and via a count of accident occurrence in the side collision scenarios. For both front-to-rear and side collision scenarios, auditory icons elicited significantly improved driver performance over conventional auditory warnings. Driver performance improved when collision warning information was presented through multiple modalities.

Can 3-D Auditory Warnings Enhance Helicopter Cockpit Safety?

The design and use of 3-D auditory warning signals can potentially enhance helicopter cockpit safety. A study was conducted to determine how quickly helicopter pilots could respond to helicopter malfunction warning signals in a simulated cockpit environment when four different signal functions (fire in left engine, fire in right engine, chips in transmission, shaft-driven compressor failure) were presented in three different presentation modes (visual only, visual plus 3-D auditory speech signals, visual plus 3-D auditory icons). The dependent variable was pilot response time to the warning signal, from the time of signal onset to the time that the pilot manipulated the collective control in the correct manner. Subjects were 12 U.S. Army pilots between the ages of 18 and 35 who possessed hearing and visual acuity within thresholds acceptable to the U.S. Army. Results indicated that signal presentation was the only significant effect. Signal function and the signal presentation x signal function interaction were not significant. Post hoc test results indicated that pilot response time to the visual signals supplemented with 3-D audio speech or auditory icon signals was significantly shorter than that to visual signals only. The data imply that 3-D audio speech and auditory icon signals provide a safe and effective mode of warning presentation in the helicopter cockpit.

A Methodology for Selecting Auditory Icons for Use in Commercial Motor Vehicles

This paper describes work carried out to investigate the selection of auditory icons within the domain of commercial motor vehicles. Auditory icons are representational sounds in that they have specific, stereotypical meanings. While typical non-verbal sounds are defined by their particular acoustic parameters, auditory icons are defined by the objects or actions that created the sounds. Previously, researchers have relied on expert opinion to assign meaning to auditory icons; however, problems have arisen when the experimenter-selected meanings did not agree with users' opinions. Attention was focused on the auditory icons' perceived meaning and perceived urgency in an attempt to reduce the influence of experimenter bias in the auditory icon selection process.

Dissonance on audio interfaces

An important aspect of a complex intelligent system is the human-computer interface. The paper discusses the less familiar topic of audio interfaces. The controversy surrounds which of the three competing audio interface approaches is most effective: sonification, earcons and auditory icons.

Psychology of computer use: XLVI. Age-related differences in the mapping of auditory icons to visual icons in computer interfaces for children.

An investigation was conducted to characterize how children ages 6 through 9 identify auditory icons present in educational software. 24 subjects were require to map auditory icons to visual icons, both present in a computer interface. The interface used in the experiment was constructed with Visual Basic and involved 40 auditory icons, 40 corresponding visual icons, and 66 extraneous visual icons. It was hypothesized that older children would be better able to map the auditory icons to visual icons due to more extensive exposure to everyday sounds. The results supported the hypothesis and suggestions for additional research were provided.

Transforming Graphical Interfaces Into Auditory Interfaces for Blind Users

Although graphical interfaces have provided a host of advantages to the majority of computer users, they have created a significant barrier to blind computer users. To meet the needs of these users, a methodology for transforming graphical interfaces into nonvisual interfaces has been developed. In this design, the salient components of graphical interfaces are transformed into auditory interfaces. Based on a hierarchical model of the graphical interface, the auditory interface utilizes auditory icons to convey interface objects. Users navigate the interface by traversing its hierarchical structure. This design results in a usable interface that meets the needs of blind users and provides many of the benefits of graphical interfaces.

The effect of age on mapping auditory icons to visual icons for computer interface design

This research explored the abilities of subjects in grade 1 (6–7 years old) and grade 3 (8–9 years old) to identify auditory icons that are commonly introduced in software applications by mapping the auditory icons to visual icons present in a computer interface. The interface used in the experiment was constructed with Visual Basic and involved forty auditory icons and forty corresponding visual icons. It was hypothesized that the third grade subjects would be better equipped to map the auditory icons to visual icons present in the interface due to the ecological frequency of everyday sounds. The hypothesis was proven and suggestions for additional researcg are provided.

The identifiability of auditory icons for use in educational software for children

The research explored how subjects in grade 1 (6-7 years old) and grade 3 (8-9 years old) identify auditory icons that are commonly introduced in educational software applications. The subjects were required to identify 37 auditory icons by specifying two dimensions: the object associated with producing the sound and the action which could be causing the sound. It was hypothesized that the ecological frequency versus relative uniqueness feature would be more salient for third-graders. Thus, they would be better equipped to identify the auditory cues than the first-graders. The results indicated that the third-grade subjects were better equipped to identify auditory cues based upon two dimensions of interest than the first-grade subjects. This information is useful for interface designers incorporating auditory icons into educational software for children at various developmental levels. Suggestions for future research are provided.

Auditory Icons as Warning and Advisory Signals in the U.S. Army Battlefield Combat Identification System (BCIS)

The U.S. Army proposed the Battlefield Combat Identification System (BCIS) to diminish fratricide by providing five critical auditory and visual warning signals. The purpose of this experiment was to determine whether the auditory warning signals designed by the U.S. Army Human Research and Engineering Directorate (HRED) provided greater user association with the BCIS signal functions than did signals designed by a contractor. The contractor signals consisted of pure tones, while the HRED signals were auditory icons designed with intent to provide a high level of user association. The dependent variable was the subject's free-modulus magnitude estimation rating of the degree of association of the signal with the signal function. Subjects were 20 male U.S. Army Infantrymen. Data were analyzed using t-tests for paired samples. Results indicated that the mean perceived association was significantly greater for the HRED auditory icons in one of five cases, and greater (but not significantly so) in two additional cases. There were no other significant differences. Implications for auditory display design are discussed.

Techniques and Applications for Binaural Sound Manipulation

The implementation of binaural sound to speech and auditory sound cues (auditory icons) is addressed from both applications and technical standpoints. Techniques overviewed include processing by means of filtering with head-related transfer functions. Application to advanced cockpit-human interface systems is discussed, although the techniques arc extendible to any human-machine interface. Research issues pertaining to three-dimensional sound displays under investigation at the Aerospace Human Factors Research Division at NASA-Ames Research Center are described.

AUDITORY ICONS IN LARGE-SCALE COLLABORATIVE ENVIRONMENTS

We discuss the potential for auditory icons to address several common problems in large-scale, multiprocessing, and collaborative systems. These problems include those of confirming user-initiated actions, providing information about ongoing processes or system states, providing adequate navigational information, and signalling the existence and activity of other users who may be working in a part of the system that is not visible. We provide several examples of useful auditory icons drawn from a large, shared, multitasking environment called SharedARK, and discuss their implications for other systems.

The SonicFinder: An Interface that Uses Auditory Icons (Abstract Only)

The appropriate use of non-speech sounds has the potential to add a great deal to the functionality of computer interfaces. Sound is a largely unexploited medium of output, even though it plays an integral role in our everyday encounters with the world, one that is complementary to vision. I argue that sound should be used in computers as it is in the world, where it conveys information about the nature of sound-producing events. Such a strategy leads to auditory icons, which are everyday sounds meant to convey information about computer events by analogy with everyday events. Auditory icons are an intuitively accessible way to use sound to provide multidimensional, organized information to users. These ideas are instantiated in the SonicFinder, which is an auditory interface I developed at Apple Computer. In this interface, information is conveyed using auditory icons as well as standard graphical feedback. I discuss how events are mapped to auditory icons in the SonicFinder and illustrate how sound is used by describing a typical interaction with this interface.Two major gains are associated with using sound in this interface: an increase in direct engagement with the model world of the computer and an added flexibility for users in getting information about that world. These advantages seem to be due to the iconic nature of the mappings used between sound and the information it is to convey. I discuss sound effects and source metaphors as methods of extending auditory icons beyond the limitations implied by literal mappings and speculate on future directions for such interfaces.

The SonicFinder: An Interface That Uses Auditory Icons

The appropriate use of nonspeech sounds has the potential to add a great deal to the functionality of computer interfaces. Sound is a largely unexploited medium of output, even though it plays an integral role in our everyday encounters with the world, a role that is complementary to vision. Sound should be used in computers as it is in the world, where it conveys information about the nature of sound-producing events. Such a strategy leads to auditory icons, which are everyday sounds meant to convey information about computer events by analogy with everyday events. Auditory icons are an intuitively accessible way to use sound to provide multidimensional, organized information to users. These ideas are instantiated in the SonicFinder, which is an auditory interface I developed at Apple Computer, Inc. In this interface, information is conveyed using auditory icons as well as standard graphical feedback. I discuss how events are mapped to auditory icons in the SonicFinder, and illustrate how sound is used by describing a typical interaction with this interface. Two major gains are associated with using sound in this interface: an increase in direct engagement with the model world of the computer and an added flexibility for users in getting information about that world. These advantages seem to be due to the iconic nature of the mappings used between sound and the information it is to convey. I discuss sound effects and source metaphors as methods of extending auditory icons beyond the limitations implied by literal mappings, and I speculate on future directions for such interfaces.

Structure and Development of Plans in Computer Text Editing

There is growing interest in the use of sound to convey information in computer interfaces. The strategies employed thus far have been based on an understanding of sound that leads to either an arbitrary or metaphorical relation between the sounds used and the data to be represented. In this brief note, an alternative approach to the use of sound in computer interfaces is outlined, one that emphasizes the role of sound in conveying information about the world to the listener. According to this approach, auditory icons, caricatures of naturally-occurring sounds, could be used to provide information about sources of data. Auditory icons provide a natural way to represent dimensional data as well as conceptual objects in a computer system. They allow categorization of data into distinct families, using a single sound. This strategy has the advantage that it is based on the way people listen to the world in their everyday lives.

Auditory Icons: Using Sound in Computer Interfaces

There is growing interest in the use of sound to convey information in computer interfaces. The strategies employed thus far have been based on an understanding of sound that leads to either an arbitrary or metaphorical relation between the sounds used and the data to be represented. In this article, an alternative approach to the use of sound in computer interfaces is outlined, one that emphasizes the role of sound in conveying information about the world to the listener. According to this approach, auditory icons, caricatures of naturally occurring sounds, could be used to provide information about sources of data. Auditory icons provide a natural way to represent dimensional data as well as conceptual objects in a computer system. They allow categorization of data into distinct families, using a single sound. Perhaps the most important advantage of this strategy is that it is based on the way people listen to the world in their everyday lives.