Attention Restoration Theory Research Articles

Taking a break: Exploring the restorative benefits of short breaks and vacations

This paper applies Attention Restoration Theory to explore the restorative benefits of short breaks and vacations among Australian university staff (N = 156). Three groups (Vacation, Short Break and No Break) were compared using both objective (physiological and cognitive) and subjective (self-report) measures. Cognitive and self-report measures demonstrated that taking a break increases the ability to focus attention and improves restorative well-being. No consistent effects were found using physiological measures. Short breaks have an advantage over longer vacations on some measures, and this may be explained by attributes of the environment and activities in which vacationers engaged. Detachment from work is particularly important in achieving restorative benefits. Suggestions are offered for optimising the restorative effectiveness of taking a break.

The Effect of the Relationship between Indoor Architectural Design Studios and Outdoor Landscape on Increasing Students’ Satisfaction Level

The environmental factors in the educational spaces along with the other factors affect the teaching and learning process. One of the characteristics of environmental space is the type of relationship of each space with its outdoor space. This factor is more important, especially in the spaces where students spend long hours such as architectural design studios. Nowadays, outdoor spaces in academic environments provide functions like accessing to closed spaces and various buildings and creating their relationship. In this regard, the visual function is considered as another important function, which is often overlooked and less considered and created by the outdoor environments for indoor closed spaces. The main question is related to whether the type of the relationship between the closed space of the architectural design studio and the outdoor natural space is considered as an important factor in achieving students’ satisfaction with long hours working in this space based on the attention restoration theory or not. The present study aimed to examine the effect of the relationship between the indoor spaces of architectural design studios and outdoor environment on increasing students’ satisfaction. This research was conducted by combining the quantitative and qualitative methods. The population included 65 students majoring in architecture, who experienced designing classes in all three studied studios. This research compared three architectural design studios with different conditions of proximity and outward view. The research data were analyzed with SPSS software. The results indicated that the open and diverse outdoor natural landscape was more effective factor in increasing students’ satisfaction rather than among the various factors influencing the type of relationship between the studios and the outdoor space. Accordingly, designing the university landscape from the indoor closed spaces should be considered more, especially in spaces such as studios due to the long hours of attending and working of students.

The Restorative Potential of Icelandic Nature.

This study aimed to investigate if proposed restorative attributes according to attention restoration theory and supportive environment theory could be experienced and identified in Icelandic landscape and contribute to a restorative experience in nature sites in rural Iceland. A prospective mixed-method study was conducted over the period of one year. Seven different nature sites that were considered likely to have restorative qualities were selected for the evaluation i.e., three forest sites, three seashores, and one park in and in the vicinity of Ísafjörður, Iceland. Each site was evaluated regarding how the participants experienced its restorative qualities and how a stay therein affected their mental state. Nature visits were offered once a week, where the participants visited one of the seven locations for two hours. The findings show that the participants perceived and experienced nature sites as having the characteristics of a restorative environment and that staying at the nature sites positively affected their mental state. External conditions, like weather, which can affect nature visits, were rarely a hinderance. Thus, it can be concluded that numerous coastal areas, forests, and parks in Iceland, especially in rural areas, might possess restorative qualities as well. This result shows that wild and open nature in North West Iceland has the characteristics of a restorative environment and can be utilized for health promotion.

Restorative effect of interactive virtual reality natural environment experience on psychophysiological responses

In this study, the restorative effect of a natural environment experience simulated with interactive virtual reality technology on the psychophysiological response was investigated. Three simulated virtual reality stimuli were selected: a green-dominated area, green and water combined area, and water-dominated area. Free movement was permitted to provide interaction in virtual reality, and an appropriate sound environment was provided in real time to each space through 3-D sound technology. Fifty subjects experiencing the normal levels of stress or depression participated in this study. The aim was to locate the most restorative point in the natural environment, and the physical properties at each point were quantified. In addition, to collect psychological responses, subjects were asked to respond to a restoration questionnaire based on the attention restoration and stress reduction theory and a questionnaire on soundscape and landscape perception. Concurrently, various physiological responses, such as heart rate, electroencephalogram, and eye tracking, were measured. Finally, the relationship between physical characteristics and psychophysiological responses was investigated. Based on this, guidelines were presented on how to create a virtual reality natural environment for stress recovery.

한강공원 방문객의 회복환경지각이 장소애착심에 미치는 영향: 주의회복이론을 중심으로

한강공원 방문객의 회복환경지각이 장소애착심에 미치는 영향: 주의회복이론을 중심으로

A Biofeedback Enhanced Adaptive Virtual Reality Environment for Managing Surgical Pain and Anxiety

Pain and anxiety are common accompaniments of surgery, and opioids have been the mainstay of pain management for decades, with about 80% of the surgical population leaving the hospital with an opioid prescription. Moreover, patients receiving an opioid prescription after short-stay surgeries have a 44% increased risk of long-term opioid use, and about one in 16 surgical patients becomes a long-term user. Current opioid abuse and addiction now place the US in an “opioid epidemic,” and calls for alternative pain management mechanisms. To mitigate the preoperative anxiety and postoperative pain, we developed a virtual reality (VR) experience based on Attention Restoration Theory (ART) and integrated the user’s heart rate variability (HRV) biofeedback to create an adaptive environment. A randomized control trial among 16 Total Knee Arthroplasty (TKA) patients undergoing surgery at Patewood Memorial Hospital, Greenville, SC demonstrated that patients experiencing the adaptive VR environment reported a significant decrease in preoperative anxiety ([Formula: see text]) and postoperative pain ([Formula: see text]) after the VR intervention. These results were also supported by the physiological measures where there was a significant increase in RR Interval (RRI) ([Formula: see text]) and a significant decrease in the low frequency (LF)/high frequency (HF) ratio ([Formula: see text]) and respiration rate (RR) ([Formula: see text]).

Restorative experiences and online tourists’ willingness to pay a price premium in an augmented reality environment

This study examined the effects of the restorative experience triggered by empowerment features in augmented reality (AR) on online tourists’ immersion and willingness to pay a price premium in the pre-purchase phase. The study focused in particular on the coherence and compatibility perspectives of the restorative experience. A scenario survey was conducted to validate the research framework. The research findings clarified the psychological mechanism behind the willingness to pay a price premium in AR-empowered online travel experiences. They indicated that the two AR empowerment features namely environmental embedding and simulated physical control generate restorative experience, which further fostered immersion and ultimately resulted in the willingness to pay more. The results may help online tourism services select appropriate AR empowerment features that will incite tourists to pay a premium price and also help create an effective AR tourism destination experience in the pre-purchase phase. This study focused on the attention restoration theory, empowerment paradigms, and AR-based service technology to develop an integrated conceptual framework of the relationship among AR empowerment features, restorative experience, immersion, and pre-purchase decision-making behavior.

Perceived Green at Speed: A Simulated Driving Experiment Raises New Questions for Attention Restoration Theory and Stress Reduction Theory

Few studies have investigated the impact of landscapes on humans’ mental status while they are moving at high speeds, such as driving on the freeway. This study used a simulation system to measure drivers’ mental responses to six different freeway landscapes. Each of the 33 participants completed six different 90-minute simulated driving tasks in a randomly assigned sequence. The six landscape conditions consisted of an identical freeway infrastructure, with different roadside landscapes. Results show significant differences between landscape conditions and drivers’ mental responses. Landscape conditions with greater greenness, in general, had a greater positive impact on drivers’ mental status. The barren and tree regular landscapes yielded the worst and best results, respectively. Further, higher complexity was associated with a higher level of negative mental status. We argue that the speed of human’s active movement should be considered as an essential factor in the Attention Restoration Theory and Stress Reduction Theory.

순천만국가정원 방문객들의 회복환경지각, 회복경험 및 행복감의 관계: 주의회복이론을 바탕으로

순천만국가정원 방문객들의 회복환경지각, 회복경험 및 행복감의 관계: 주의회복이론을 바탕으로

Closed-Loop Attention Restoration Theory for Virtual Reality-Based Attentional Engagement Enhancement.

Today, as media and technology multitasking becomes pervasive, the majority of young people face a challenge regarding their attentional engagement (that is, how well their attention can be maintained). While various approaches to improve attentional engagement exist, it is difficult to produce an effect in younger people, due to the inadequate attraction of these approaches themselves. Here, we show that a single 30-min engagement with an attention restoration theory (ART)-inspired closed-loop software program (Virtual ART) delivered on a consumer-friendly virtual reality head-mounted display (VR-HMD) could lead to improvements in both general attention level and the depth of engagement in young university students. These improvements were associated with positive changes in both behavioral (response time and response time variability) and key electroencephalography (EEG)-based neural metrics (frontal midline theta inter-trial coherence and parietal event-related potential P3b). All the results were based on the comparison of the standard Virtual ART tasks (control group, n = 15) and closed-loop Virtual ART tasks (treatment group, n = 15). This study provides the first case of EEG evidence of a VR-HMD-based closed-loop ART intervention generating enhanced attentional engagement.

Sustainable Co-Design with Older People: The Case of a Public Restorative Garden in Milan (Italy)

The demographic aging and the evolution of lifestyles require new strategies to promote the well-being and active aging of elderly. Active aging depends on many factors: some of these are related to objective data such as physical environment, others are personal elements; it is important to improve environmental physical factors to encourage personal attitudes to the green spaces in use. To design a small sustainable restorative green space in Milan, Italy, restorative garden design criteria are summarized in the first section of the paper and both social and environmental sustainability are considered. The methodology section describes the co-design process and how it was applied to include different older user groups in the design of the area. In the results section authors apply a taxonomy based on the four properties of restorative settings according to the Attention Restoration Theory by Kaplan (compatibility, being away, extent, fascination): this provides a unified system to classify users’ expectations and to describe the final project. The proposed co-design process combines social and environmental sustainability, as it provides designers an insight about the user’s experience in nature. Such information can be fruitfully integrated with professional competences about comfort aspects and environmental protection in order to improve the whole design project.

Attention restoration theory as a framework for analysis of Tweets about urban green space: a case study

ABSTRACT In this study, the use of Twitter as a potential method to capture unsolicited views of urban green spaces was explored. Tweets were content analysed using attention restoration theory (ART) as the framework. Tweets about three city-centre urban green spaces in northern England were analysed for four attention restoration characteristics: being away, fascination, compatibility, and extent. Of 5,624 Tweets matching search parameters, approximately 10% were suitable for analysis after re-Tweets, advertising, and event-related matches were eliminated. Tweets most often referred to fascination or compatibility. Fewer than 5% of Tweets referred to being away and none referred to extent. Tweets associated with more biodiverse locations suggested they were also more fascinating. The thematic content in unsolicited Tweets about urban green space was consistent with characteristics central to attention restoration theory, reinforcing the positive potential of urban green spaces for attention restoration and Twitter as a potential data source.

Взаимодействие с миром растений как источник позитивного функционирования человека

The present review examines the restorative potential of interaction with flora for the physical and mental health of a person and their psychological well-being. The plant world is a particular part of nature, characterized by responsiveness, aesthetic appeal, and unobtrusiveness. These features make plants an effective means of restoring cognitive abilities, emotional state, as well as developing personal and behavioral effectiveness. At the same time, it is noted that, due to the phenomenon of plant blindness, their recovery resource is not used enough. The types of eco-therapy are analyzed; theories explaining the mechanisms of plants’ influence on the people’s psyche (biophilia hypothesis, attention restoration theory, stress recovery/reduction theory, and phyto-resonance) are presented. We review the results of studies proving the beneficial effect of interactions with the plant world (gardening, walking in the forest and park, simulation of the natural environment) on physical health and recovery from somatic diseases, on attention, creativity, behavior, and social functioning of a person. The effectiveness of interaction with flora is also noteworthy in the case of working with particular groups of people (adolescents from risk groups, offenders, and psychiatric patients). We analyze the limitations of studies, mainly related to their design.

Quasi-Randomized Trial of Contact With Nature and Effects on Attention in Children.

Children today spend less time in nature than previous generations and there is concern that this shift negatively impacts children’s cognitive abilities, particularly their ability to direct their attention. Theories, such as the Attention Restoration Theory (ART), suggest that contact with nature may replenish endogenous attention (e.g., directed, voluntary attention). There is a lack of rigorous research on how contact with nature is associated with attentional performance in children. This study employed a quasi-experimental design and included a sample of typically developing children to investigate performance on computerized endogenous and exogenous attention tasks before and after exposure to one of two interventions – a 30-min walk in either an urban (n = 30) or natural (forested, n = 30) environment. The two experimental groups were equivalent with regard to sex ratio, age, IQ, and connectedness to nature. Attention was assessed using the Combined Attention Systems Test (CAST), a state-of-the-art assessment tool designed to evaluate exogenous and endogenous attention characteristics. Bayesian hierarchical modeling of both response time (RT) and error rate (ER) was employed to evaluate the fixed effect of attentional measures and interactions with session and group. Consistent with predictions of ART, results support credible effects of the nature intervention on two measures of endogenous attention: Alerting RT: d = 0.85 (95% CI: 0.21–1.8), Orienting ER: d = 1.45 (95% CI: 0.17–7.18), but not on any of the measures of exogenous attention.Clinical Trial Registration: https://www.isrctn.com/, identifier ISRCTN17762011.

Nature as nurture: Rural older women’s perspectives on the natural environment

ABSTRACTRural older women are surrounded by nature, a dynamic context for human development. Informed by place attachment and attention restoration theory, and guided by a life course perspective, this qualitative study focused on the perceived influence of nature in the lives of 34 rural older women. Using grounded theory techniques to analyze in-depth interviews, two primary findings emerged: (a) nature was integral to the women’s identity; and (b) interactions with nature were motivated by prior positive spiritual and psychological outcomes. Findings revealed the power of the natural environment as a resource for coping with the challenges associated with aging.

A Simulated Walk in Nature: Testing Predictions From the Attention Restoration Theory

Attention restoration theory (ART) predicts that top-down processing during everyday activities can cause attentional fatigue and that bottom-up processing that occurs when people experience nature will be restorative. This study exposed participants to three different conditions using a repeated measures design: a control condition during which participants walked on a typical treadmill; a nature condition during which participants walked on the same treadmill, experiencing a simulated nature walk; and a perturbation condition that included the same simulated nature scene but also required top-down processing during the walk. The findings supported ART predictions. As measured by the backward digit span test, top-down processing in a simulated natural environment nullified the restorative effects and the nature condition produced a significant improvement in directed attention performance compared to the control and perturbation conditions after a 10-min walk. These findings offer practical insights to enhance cognitive functioning through simulated natural environments.

Improving the clinical environment soundscape

This project examines the impact of the clinical acoustic environment on both patients and staff within a large modern inner-city acute hospital (1677 beds). It aims to both summarize and improve the hospital soundscape. Three key parts of experimental work were carried out: noise level measurements were taken in the Queen Elizabeth University Hospital atrium in Glasgow, interviews were undertaken with medical personnel and listening experiments were conducted to assess if adding natural sounds into the environment could reduce the negative effects noise can have on the occupants of the hospital. The atrium area of the hospital was found to be far louder than needed for rest and relaxation, with all recorded equivalent noise levels over 55 dB(A). Relaxing sounds of nature were added to the hospital soundscape to harness the restorative power of nature. The effect of this was tested using the perceived restorativeness soundscape scale; there was mixed evidence that the introduction of natural sounds led to an increase in the environment’s restorative power, with four out of eight attention restoration theory components tested displaying a statistically significant difference. The medical personnel interviewed indicated that the idea of introducing natural sounds is promising and requires further research.This project examines the impact of the clinical acoustic environment on both patients and staff within a large modern inner-city acute hospital (1677 beds). It aims to both summarize and improve the hospital soundscape. Three key parts of experimental work were carried out: noise level measurements were taken in the Queen Elizabeth University Hospital atrium in Glasgow, interviews were undertaken with medical personnel and listening experiments were conducted to assess if adding natural sounds into the environment could reduce the negative effects noise can have on the occupants of the hospital. The atrium area of the hospital was found to be far louder than needed for rest and relaxation, with all recorded equivalent noise levels over 55 dB(A). Relaxing sounds of nature were added to the hospital soundscape to harness the restorative power of nature. The effect of this was tested using the perceived restorativeness soundscape scale; there was mixed evidence that the introduction of natural sounds led to...

Spiritual retreats as a restorative destination: Design factors facilitating restorative outcomes

Spiritual retreats provide an opportunity for restoration, transformation and personal development. This study utilizes Attention Restoration Theory to explore the specific environmental attributes, activities and experiences of spiritual retreats that lead to restorative outcomes. Data collected from 268 attendees across 17 spiritual retreats in Australia demonstrated that although there were different predictors for immediate and continuing restorative outcomes, three factors (being away, participating in spiritual activities and disconnecting from information technology) were important for both. Spending time in relaxation and reflection predicted immediate restorative outcomes, while social activities predicted continuing restorative outcomes. The practical implications of the findings for retreat managers concerned with providing restorative experiences for visitors are discussed.

Does the Mode of Exercise Influence the Benefits Obtained by Green Exercise?

Green exercise studies have tended to use walking as a modality of exercise to establish benefits to mental health. Whether green exercise benefits translate into different forms of green exercise has been deemed an important research gap. A mixed-methods study design was used to compare psychological responses between two forms of green exercise; golf and walking. A total of 20 participants (10 in each group), with a range of ages and experience were recruited to take part in the study. Participants in the walking condition exhibited significantly greater levels of dissociative cognitions than golf condition participants. Consequently, only the walking condition significantly improved in a directed attention test. Results from the Exercise-Induced Feeling Inventory questionnaire found the walking condition demonstrated increases in all four subscales, whereas the golf condition showed no significant improvements. Based on the findings from the qualitative analysis, distinct differences were seen with regards to the perception of the environment. Participants in the golf condition noted natural elements as obstacles to effective performance, whereas the walking group noted natural stimuli as evoking positive feelings. In agreement with the Attention Restoration Theory, the current study demonstrates that the benefits of green exercise are somewhat reduced when greater levels of directed attention towards the activity are exhibited during green exercise.

Observation of environments with different restorative potential results in differences in eye patron movements and pupillary size

The Environmental Psychological Restoration (EPR) is the result of the recovery of an antecedent deficit (e.g. stress or attentional fatigue) culminating in a restorative environment exposure. Recent findings suggest that visual contact with nature is important in triggering restorative responses. We measure the behavioral evidence of visual exposure to restorative environments in an eye-tracking study. Eye movement patterns (fixations and pupil dilatation) were evaluated while a sample of participants (n=27; 15 females and 12 males) viewed photographs with High Restorative Potential (HRP) or Low Restorative Potential (LRP). The eye patterns during the observation of LRP were distinct to those of the HRP environments. Eye movements related to LRP photographs were characterized by a greater number of fixations compared to those related to HRP. Fixation times predicted an inverse relation, with LRP settings having a significantly shorter time per fixation than HRP pictures. Differences on pupil diameter were found. A higher pupil size was found during the view of HRP vs. LRP environments. Our eye tracking study suggest that restorative environment observation is associated with reduced eye movement activity relative to low restorative potential environment perception, which may reflect a lower cognitive effort in processing natural scenes. Likewise, pupillary dilatation variations suggest a possible link between the affective valences of the settings and its restorative quality. Data results are confronted according to attention restoration theory on restorative environments.