Attention Restoration Research Articles

Are low-level visual features of scenes associated with perceived restorative qualities?

Exposure to the natural environment has been associated with cognitive benefits. Attention Restoration Theory (ART) proposes that the physical environment, including the natural environment, can be cognitively restorative if the setting embodies a set of high-level qualities (e.g., fascination). However, these restorative qualities are typically measured subjectively. In this study, we examined whether a set of objectively measured low-level visual features predict subjective restorative qualities that are based on ART. Eighty-eight participants from Amazon Mechanical Turk rated 592 images on naturalness and four restorative qualities. Color and spatial features of images explained 5–20% of the variance in ratings of restorative qualities. We also found that visual features partially mediated the relationship between naturalness and restorative qualities. These results suggest that a small but significant portion of the perception of restorative qualities is grounded in objectively measured low-level visual features. Further research is needed to understand the potential for and limits of visual features as predictors of restorative qualities.

Welcome to stay-at-home travel and virtual attention restoration

The present investigation takes a qualitative approach to explore Airbnb's Online Experience as a new virtual tourism initiative through the lens of attention restoration theory. Data were collected from tourist reviews at Airbnb's platform with an emphasis on touring services such as sightseeing and cultural immersion sessions. Our findings first point to a multitude of virtual tour experiences germane to deep immersion, authenticity, nostalgia, hedonism, past-present resonance, novelty, learning, social interaction, and escape. These stay-at-home virtual restorative experiences were infused by Airbnb's state-of-the-art platform with features such as a super host, storytelling, personalization, virtual connection, stay-at-home indulgence, and technology enablement, which ultimately transcend home as the center stage for virtual attention restoration under the COVID-19 new normal.

The Perceived Restorative Quality of Viewing Various Types of Urban and Rural Scenes: Based on Psychological and Physiological Responses

Attention restoration theory argues that the type of visual scene is important; however, related research is mostly based on a dichotomous comparison between natural and urban environments. Few studies have evaluated complex scenes comprising both natural and artificial elements. Therefore, we compared the differences between four types of environments: urban artificial scenes, urban natural scenes, rural artificial scenes, and rural natural scenes—using a survey based on the Perceived Restorativeness Scale (PRS), perception complexity scoring, and eye tracking. Participants (N = 119) viewed photographs in a random order. The results showed significant differences between the visual landscape scores and eye-tracking data for each type of visual image: PRS, perception complexity, average fixation duration, and mean pupil size. Rural natural scenes had a higher restoration effect than the other scenes. Waterscapes and well-maintained vegetation had positive correlations between the typical landscape element indices and restorative benefits in different scene types. Contrastingly, weeds and hardscapes showed negative correlations, which can be attributed to the maintenance of these typical elements. The harmony of elements with circumstances in a scene was a key factor. The results provide a reference for urban and rural landscape planning and design to improve perceived restorative quality.

Can Nature-Based Solutions (NBSs) for Stress Recovery in Green Hotels Affect Re-Patronage Intention?

Our research framework in this paper investigated natural-based solutions (NBSs) at green hotels. We employed attention restoration theory (ART) to test the mediating effect of perceived stress (PS), psychological wellness (PW), satisfaction (SA), and the moderating effect of health consciousness (HC) on re-patronage intentions (RI). Data were collected through a survey of 544 customers who frequently visited green hotels in Korea, and structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to test the research hypotheses. The findings generally supported the hypothesized associations of the study variables within our proposed theoretical framework (PS, PW, SF) in order of the mediating effect on RI and confirmed the moderating effect of HC. In addition, the study’s results have important theoretical and practical implications for the environment. In the former case, our results demonstrate the application of ART and NBS by explaining the effect of the relationship among PS, PW, and SF on RI and confirm the mediating effect of the ART (PS, PW, SF) on RI, as demonstrated in previous studies. Moreover, in the latter case our results may encourage green hotels to participate in the prevention of environmental problems.

Engaging with restorative environments in wellness tourism

ABSTRACT Drawing from environmental psychology and consumer well-being perspectives, this study leverages the theoretical mechanisms underlying the concept of restorative environments to develop and test a model based on Kaplan and Kaplan’s (1989) Attention Restoration Theory framework to examine the restorative potentials of wellness tourism settings. A total of 357 valid questionnaires were collected. The results show that the restorative environment is an important aspect of the wellness experience, contributing to positive emotions and life satisfaction as well as determining an individual’s loyalty and intention to revisit. Multi-group analysis was applied to further examine the moderating effect. This research provided a theoretically and empirically consistent explanation for the theoretical mechanisms of ART underlying the concepts of restorative experience, tourist well-being, and loyalty, the manifestation of which in the wellness tourism context extrapolates the importance of restorative environments for well-being.

A post from the woods: Social media, well-being and our connection to the natural world

Research on our connection to nature (CTN) and sense of well-being has gained increased attention in recent years. It is often argued that CTN is an important, yet diminishing, human need, especially when juxtaposed with our increased time spent with screens and social media. Yet, little is known about the potential for social media, CTN, and well-being to form positive relationships. From the self-presentation framework, this study sought to better understand these relationships by examining the connection between three forms of nature posts (self, friends', and celebrities'), CTN, and two forms of well-being (vitality and body appreciation). Results from a cross-sectional survey demonstrated significant positive links between nature posts and CTN. Regression analyses showed active posting (self-nature posts) but not passive exposure (friends', celebrities' posts) was significantly linked to CTN, when also accounting for time spent outdoors and age. There was also a significant relationship between nature posts and well-being. Regression analyses revealed active posts were significantly linked to vitality and marginally significant in connection to body appreciation. Celebrities’ posts were also positively linked to body appreciation. Finally, CTN served as a significant mediator between nature posts and well-being. The findings are discussed in the context of nature-related self-presentation online and attention restoration, and in contrast to the often-deterministic view of the impact of technology use on CTN.

Outdoor coaching: The role of Attention Restoration Theory as a framework for explaining the experience and benefit of eco-psychology coaching

There is little empirical research into the benefits and experiences of coaching specifically in the outdoors. Attention Restoration Theory (ART) identifies four facets that explain why nature enables the brain to restore directed attention, improve cognitive capabilities and relieve stress. It is proposed that ART is relevant to understanding the benefits of outdoor coaching because, according to ART, natural environments can help the brain to focus more efficiently, make decisions, think creatively and process information effectively by restoring directed attention and cognitive capacity - all of which are aspects of high quality coaching conversations. The aim of the research is to identify the benefits of outdoor coaching experienced by the participants and analyse them using Attention Restoration Theory as a framework to explain these benefits. Data regarding the felt experiences of nine participants who are currently having, or recently had, outdoor coaching is analysed using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) and discussed. The key findings show six identified key themes linking the participants’ felt experiences with the four facets of ART: Being side-by-side; movement and pace; the perceived benefits of outdoors vs indoors; thinking differently; openness and expanse; senses, emotions and feelings. We conclude that there are benefits to taking coaching conversations outside and that ART is a framework that can explain these benefits.

Virtual reality cognitive intervention for heart failure: CORE study protocol.

IntroductionHeart failure (HF) is a prevalent, serious chronic illness that affects 6.5 million adults in the United States. Among patients with HF, the prevalence of attention impairment is reported to range from 15% to 27%. Although attention is fundamental to human activities including HF self‐care, cognitive interventions for patients with HF that target improvement in attention are scarce. The COgnitive intervention to Restore attention using nature Environment (CORE) study aims to test the preliminary efficacy of the newly developed Nature‐VR, a virtual reality‐based cognitive intervention that is based on the restorative effects of nature. Nature‐VR development was guided by Attention Restoration Theory. The target outcomes are attention, HF self‐care, and health‐related quality of life (HRQoL). Our exploratory aims examine the associations between attention and several putative/established HF biomarkers (eg, oxygen saturation, brain‐derived neurotrophic factor, apolipoprotein E, dopamine receptor, and dopamine transporter genes) as well as the effect of Nature‐VR on cognitive performance in other domains (ie, global cognition, memory, visuospatial, executive function, and language), cardiac and neurological events, and mortality.MethodsThis single‐blinded, two‐group randomized‐controlled pilot study will enroll 74 participants with HF. The Nature‐VR intervention group will view three‐dimensional nature pictures using a virtual reality headset for 10 minutes per day, 5 days per week for 4 weeks (a total of 200 minutes). The active comparison group, Urban‐VR, will view three‐dimensional urban pictures using a virtual reality headset to match the Nature‐VR intervention in intervention dose and delivery mode, but not in content. After baseline interviews, four follow‐up interviews will be conducted to assess sustained effects of Nature‐VR at 4, 8, 26, and 52 weeks.DiscussionThe importance and novelty of this study consists of using a first‐of‐its kind, immersive virtual reality technology to target attention and in investigating the health outcomes of the Nature‐VR cognitive intervention among patients with HF.

Psychological benefits of the person-nature relationship

The literature reports different benefits of people's relationship with nature. However, for the field of psychology the evidence is partial and not integrated. Consequently, the aim of this paper is to understand the psychological benefits of people's relationship with nature from a systemic review of empirical articles indexed in the Wos, Scopus and Scielo database, between the years 2015 and 2020. We used the PRISMA model for the search, identification and suitability of the articles, which were analyzed in their bibliometric characteristics and thematic content. The main bibliometric findings show that articles produced in the United Kingdom and the United States predominate, conducted in urban natural environments using quantitative methodologies with the use of surveys and physiological measurements. Thematically, we distinguish five dimensions of psychological benefits: restoration of attention, restoration and/or reduction of stress, psychological well-being, mental health and psychosocial benefits. We argue that these benefits are articulated by an activity that mediates people's relationship with nature. We conclude by pointing out the relevance of future research in the Latin American context, the integration of mediating activities and the use of qualitative methodologies.

Nature-Based Citizen Science as a Mechanism to Improve Human Health in Urban Areas.

The world is becoming increasingly urbanised, impacting human interactions with natural environments (NEs). NEs take a number of forms, ranging from pristine, modified, to built NEs, which are common in many urban areas. NEs may include nature-based solutions, such as introducing nature elements and biological processes into cities that are used to solve problems created by urbanisation. Whilst urbanisation has negative impacts on human health, impacting mental and physical wellbeing through a number of mechanisms, exposure to NEs may improve human health and wellbeing. Here, we review the mechanisms by which health can be improved by exposure to NEs, as explained by Stress Reduction Theory, Attention Restoration Theory, and the ‘Old Friends’/biodiversity hypothesis. Such exposures may have physiological and immunological benefits, mediated through endocrine pathways and altered microbiota. Citizen Science, which often causes exposure to NEs and social activity, is being increasingly used to not only collect scientific data but also to engage individuals and communities. Despite being a named component of scientific and environmental strategies of governments, to our knowledge, the intrinsic health benefits of Citizen Science in NEs do not form part of public health policy. We contend that Citizen Science programs that facilitate exposure to NEs in urban areas may represent an important public health policy advance.

An experimental test of the impact of avian diversity on attentional benefits and enjoyment of people experiencing urban green‐space

Abstract Biodiversity may play a key role in generating the well‐being benefits of visiting green‐spaces. The ability of people to accurately perceive variation in biodiversity is, however, unclear and evidence supporting links between biodiversity exposure and well‐being outcomes remains equivocal. In part, this is due to the paucity of controlled experimental studies that deal adequately with confounding factors that covary with biodiversity. Attention restoration theory (ART) proposes that natural environments contain many softly fascinating stimuli that provide visitors with a sense of separation from their normal settings and routines, switching off direct attention and allowing recovery from attention fatigue. Increased biodiversity could increase these stimuli, and ART therefore potentially provides a mediating effect linking biodiversity to well‐being. Here, we conduct a controlled experiment in which participants virtually experience urban green‐space containing high and low levels of avian biodiversity (altered by manipulating bird song). Respondents accurately identified the contrast in biodiversity and reported greater enjoyment of the high biodiversity treatment than the low diversity control. Higher biodiversity did not, however, elicit greater self‐reported stimulation or restoration, and did not increase perceived restorativeness scores or attentional capacity (quantified using the Digit Span Backwards attention test). Respondents that were more connected to nature, however, had greater attentional capacity following exposure to green‐space. Our study provides rare experimental evidence that people can accurately detect variation in biodiversity, that high avian diversity boosts visitor perceptions of urban green‐space quality, and that people with increased nature connectedness show enhanced attentional capacity following an exposure to green‐space. A free Plain Language Summary can be found within the Supporting Information of this article.

The Differential Impact of Mystery in Nature on Attention: An Oculometric Study.

Nature exposure can provide benefits on stress, health and cognitive performance. According to Attention Restoration Theory (ART), the positive impact of nature on cognition is mainly driven by fascination. Fascinating properties of nature such as water or a winding hiking trail may capture involuntary attention, allowing the directed form of attention to rest and to recover. This claim has been supported by studies relying on eye-tracking measures of attention deployment, comparing exposure to urban and nature settings. Yet, recent studies have shown that promoting higher engagement with a nature setting can improve restorative benefits, hence challenging ART’s view that voluntary attention is resting. Besides, recent evidence published by Szolosi et al. (2014) suggests that voluntary attention may be involved during exposure to high-mystery nature images which they showed as having greater potential for attention restoration. The current study explored how exposure to nature images of different scenic qualities in mystery (and restoration potential) could impact the engagement of attention. To do so, participants were shown nature images characterized by either low or high mystery properties (with allegedly low or high restoration potential, respectively) and were asked to evaluate their fascination and aesthetic levels. Concurrently, an eye tracker collected measures of pupil size, fixations and spontaneous blinks as indices of attentional engagement. Results showed that high-mystery nature images had higher engagement than low-mystery images as supported by the larger pupil dilations, the higher number of fixations and the reduced number of blinks and durations of fixations. Taken together, these results challenge ART’s view that directed attention is merely resting during exposure to restorative nature and offer new hypotheses on potential mechanisms underlying attention restoration.

The Effects of Environment on Memory and Reasoning Skills: Comparing Natural and Artificial Environments

The attention restoration theory suggests that directed attention is subject to fatigue, and the presence of nature and natural environments allows recovery from that fatigue, consequently improving cognitive function. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether the mental processes of memory and reasoning were enhanced when exercised concurrently in a natural environment outdoors vs. an artificial environment such as an indoor classroom or lecture hall. Three hundred and eighty degree-seeking students at Texas State University were tested using modified forms of the Sentence Repetition Test and the California Verbal Learning Test to test verbal memory and a modified form of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-IV Matrix Reasoning Test to evaluate nonverbal reasoning/fluid intelligence. Half of the subjects (190) were tested in their classroom at the regularly scheduled class time or one located in the same building at a predetermined date and time. Half of the subjects (190) were tested in an outdoor garden classroom at a predetermined date and time. No significant difference was found to exist between in either the memory or reasoning scores of the two groups. However, comparisons of subjects in the same demographic categories produced one significant difference. Students classified as seniors (P = 0.035) who were tested in the natural environment performed significantly better on the Sentence Repetition Test compared with those tested in the artificial environment. Research generally supports the premise that exposure to nature or natural environments can have beneficial effects on physical and mental health and also improve cognitive function. Further studies should possibly include more than one meeting time and additional testing time for participants to sit and observe in the natural vs. artificial environment before testing.

Affective and cognitive restoration: comparing the restorative role of indoor plants and guided meditation

This study investigated whether indoor plants were as effective as a guided meditation for enabling psychological recovery after fatigue induced by the abbreviated vigilance task. Sixty students were randomly assigned to an indoor plant, guided meditation, or control rest-break condition. The psychological processes most in need of recovery were identified as cognitive and affective restoration. Measures of affect, stress, and working memory were taken before and after the vigilance task, and again after a rest intervention. The vigilance task-induced fatigue as shown by a significant vigilance decrement and also significantly lowered positive affect and cognitive engagement, and significantly increased distress across all three conditions. After exposure to the break interventions, distress significantly decreased for participants in the indoor plant break condition while distress significantly decreased and engagement significantly increased in the guided meditation break condition. Indoor plants and guided meditation had a small, but significant positive impact on affective restoration and no significant impact on cognitive restoration. Practitioner summary: Indoor plants are a cost-effective green ergonomics intervention in offices. This study found that a rest break with indoor plants was as effective as a rest break with guided meditation for affective restoration after fatigue from a vigilance task. Abbreviations ART attention restoration theory LCD liquid crystal display PANAS positive and negative affect schedule DSSQ S: dundee stress state questionnaire - short version BDS backward digit span ANOVA analysis of variance CI confidence interval M mean

주의회복이론의 타당성에 관한 탐색적 연구

This study examines the validity of the attention restoration theory by exploring the relationship between perception of recovery environment and psychological effect. It was also investigated whether the level of cognitive load in everyday life and the level of perception of congestion at the place of visit act as a moderating variable. Items to measure the variables were organized based on prior researches, and two preliminary surveys were conducted. The population of the study was tourists returning home after visiting Jangheung-gun Cypress Forest Woodland. The survey was conducted from September 25 to September 26, 2018, and a total of 250 samples were used for the final data analysis. Results show that the perception of the recovery environment had a positive effect on psychological recovery in the case of short-term psychological recovery. In addition, it was found that 'rest and universal attraction' among the components of the perception of recovery environment had the most significant effect on psychological recovery. Although the validity of the attention restoration theory hypothesis was not tested in this study, evidences of this study suggest that the hypothesis could be valid if the cognitive load of daily life was below an appropriate level. Also, findings of this study show that congestion perception in the natural environment has a significant effect on the causal relationship between recovery environment perception and short-term psychological recovery.

Short-Term Exposure to Nature and Benefits for Students’ Cognitive Performance: a Review

AbstractThere is growing interest recently in the outdoor environment surrounding schools where students spent time during breaks, in-school activities, and after-school programs. Several reviews have examined the impact of long-term exposures to nearby nature on students’ academic achievement, but none has focused on the effects of short-term contacts with nature on students’ cognitive performance. The aim of this review is to understand the context in which short-term passive exposures to greenness occur, how cognitive performance is measured, and the conditions under which cognitive benefits emerge at various educational levels. We reviewed 14 studies in the extant literature that report investigations involving students at different educational levels, from elementary school to university, in a short exposure to nature lasting from 10 to 90 min during a study day. The review shows that in 12 out of the 14 studies, across educational levels, cognitive benefits emerge in terms of directed attention restoration from mental fatigue due to contact with nature. A no-cost opportunity to sustain students’ cognition is a break in a green environment after mentally demanding activities.

Inducing wellbeing through staycation programs in the midst of the COVID-19 crisis

The COVID-19 pandemic aftermath has aggravated its traumatic effect to engender a mental health crisis. With increasingly worsened psychological wellbeing, it is the responsibility of tourism scholars and operators alike to explore how contemporary tourism offerings can enable individuals to rebuild hope and optimism through relishing tourism's restorative appeals amid rigid border lockdowns. However, it remains unclear whether tourists are able to restore themselves from staycation programs, since tourists have a tendency to favor a novel space, as opposed to a usual travel environment. To address this question, we relied upon a government-funded staycation campaign using a survey to assess a transformative process leading from travel motivation and restoration to fortifying psychological capital and wellbeing. Drawing on theories pertaining to attention restoration, psychological capital, and involvement, our findings unravel a travel transformative mechanism of staycation programs that build a linkage between travel motivation and favorable psychological outcomes amid adverse circumstances.

The healing effect of cute elements

AbstractConsumers around the world use retail therapy to alleviate negative emotions. In response, marketers have incorporated cute elements into product design, capitalizing on the demand for products that provide healing effects. Grounded on attention restoration theory, this study explores how baby and whimsical cuteness generate feelings of healing. It also clarifies the moderating effect of product type and examines whether feelings of healing affect consumer subjective well‐being, product attitudes, and purchase intentions. The results indicate that products with cute elements generate stronger feelings of healing. Baby cuteness is relatively more effective than whimsical cuteness. Cuteness arouses feelings of healing through the mechanisms of fascination and extent. Incorporating cute elements with utilitarian (vs. hedonic) products enhances these healing effects. Feelings of healing mediate the cuteness effect on well‐being and attitudinal responses. These findings are valuable to marketing theory and practice and consumer well‐being.

Nature Experiences of Older People for Active Ageing: An Interdisciplinary Approach to the Co-Design of Community Gardens

In Western countries, the concepts of healthy ageing and active ageing, that is, concepts that favour health, participation, and security to increase the quality of life of older people, have become key issues. Hence, the effective design of public green spaces in urban areas is crucial, as visiting these areas encourages social relations and interactions in natural, healthy contexts. Consistent with these perspectives, existing landscape design criteria emphasise the importance of considering not only the functional and aesthetic elements, but also the ecosystemic and biophilic relationships between people and the environment, producing positive effects for both. To maximise the impact of such design criteria, proper engagement strategies are desirable, both to assign an active role to older people themselves and to inform the fine-tuning of the design process according to the specific needs of the local population. This study presents an interdisciplinary co-design method that encourages and informs a biophilic approach by describing the experiences of people in natural environments, actual and designed, through the application of attention restoration theory (ART). The case study was developed through six focus group meetings with older people for the co-design of a restorative area in a community garden in the Ortica district in Milan (Italy). Results show how the main needs expressed by participants can be classified into the ART factors of “compatibility” (a multifunctional garden), “fascination” (sense of contact with nature), and “being away” (metaphorical escape from nursing homes). The garden designed includes biophilic principles that respond to such needs, and specific links with designed elements were identified. For example, “being away” (e.g., isolation from daily routine and visual occlusion of the surroundings) and “compatibility” (e.g., pergola and aesthetic value) are the factors that include the elements that more satisfactorily answer previous needs. “Fascination” also includes many positive aspects, allowing space for improvements (e.g., more water elements, interaction with animals). Implications of the method are discussed, including the importance of subjective experience in informing design, the use of different psychological constructs to describe it, and the methodological alternatives for psychological assessment.

Why cultural ecosystem services matter most: Exploring the pathways linking greenspaces and mental health in a low-income country

Exposure to urban greenspaces promotes a variety of mental health benefits. However, much of the evidence for these benefits is biased towards high-income countries. In contrast, urban areas in low-income settings that have the highest rates of urbanisation remain understudied. Given the increasing burden of mental ill-health associated with urbanisation in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), there is a clear need to better understand the role urban greenspaces play in mitigating mental ill-health. Here we use a novel combination of research methods (participatory video, focus groups and the Q-methodology) in a rapidly urbanising low-income city (Kathmandu, Nepal). We explored residents' perspectives on ecosystem services, and the pathways linking greenspaces to mental health. Residents indicated that greenspaces are linked to mental health through pathways such as reducing harm (exposure to air pollution and heat), restoring capacities (attention restoration and stress reduction), building capacities (encouraging physical activity, fostering social cohesion and child development) and causing harm (human – wildlife conflicts, gender discrimination). It is likely that a combination of such pathways triggers mental health impacts. Of all ecosystem services, cultural services such as providing settings for recreation, or intellectual or mental interactions with greenspaces involving analytical, symbolic, spiritual or religious activities were most preferred. Our findings emphasise that cultural ecosystem services provide a fundamental basic need which all people, including low-income residents, depend on to participate meaningfully in society. Urban greenspaces therefore play a pivotal role in reducing the burden of mental ill-health for low-income residents in LMICs. Greater efforts to increase the quantity, quality and accessibility of greenspaces may help to address current health inequalities in LMICs.