Attalea Maripa Research Articles

Unveiling the overlooked: Current and future distribution dynamics of kissing bugs and palm species linked to oral Chagas disease transmission

Chagas disease, a neglected global health concern primarily transmitted through the bite and feces of kissing bugs, has garnered increasing attention due to recent outbreaks in northern Brazil, highlighting the role of oral transmission facilitated by the kissing bugs species Rhodnius robustus and Rhodnius pictipes. These vectors are associated with palm trees with large crowns, such as the maripa palm (Attalea maripa) and moriche palm (Mauritia flexuosa). In this study, we employ maximum entropy (MaxEnt) ecological niche models to analyze the spatial distribution of these vectors and palm species, predicting current and future climate suitability. Our models indicate broader potential habitats than documented occurrences, with high suitability in northern South America, southern Central America, central Africa, and southeast Asia. Projections suggest increased climate suitability by 2040, followed by a reduction by 2080. This study identifies present and future areas suitable for kissing bugs and palm tree species due to climate change, aiding in the design of prevention and management strategies.

The variability of Amazonian palm phytoliths

The Arecaceae (palm) family is one of the most common and economically important plant groups in Amazonia, and play large roles in ecosystem functioning and carbon dynamics. The modern dominance of palms may be a result of environmental gradients, past climate variability and legacies of past human activities. To understand the roles people and environment have played in shaping the abundance and widespread occurrence of Amazonian palm species, past vegetation reconstructions using palaeoecological proxies that can identify palm species or genera are needed. Phytoliths are siliceous microfossils abundantly produced in palms and are used to reconstruct past vegetation composition. The aim of this paper was to assess the variability of Amazonian palm phytolith morphotypes and to determine which morphological characteristics can be used to increase the taxonomic resolution of palm identifications. Phytolith size, sphericity, spinule traits and number of (surficial) projections were measured for 24 Amazonian palm species. Differences were compared using PCA and ANOVA or Tukey tests, followed by Kruskal-Wallis or Dunn tests. Results show potential for phytoliths of Aiphanes aculeata, Attalea maripa, Bactris simplicifrons, Dictyocaryum fuscum, Euterpe precatoria, Iriartea deltoidea, Oenocarpus bacaba, Socratea exorrhiza and the genera Geonoma, Bactris, Euterpe and Oenocarpus to be identified based on their size, shape or number of projections. This will allow future phytolith analyses to reconstruct past palm abundances with an increased taxonomic resolution. We have formulated our findings into a ‘quick guide’ to identify palm phytoliths and test hypotheses regarding the drivers of modern palm distributions and abundances.

The role of palm tree Attalea maripa (Aubl.) Mart. in the fixation of fern communities in edge areas

Edge areas of forest fragments are the most exposed to external disturbances. This study aimed to evaluate the palm tree Attalea maripa (Aubl.) Mart. role in conserving the community of ferns from disturbed areas of the Ecological Reserve of the Bacurizal Forest, Salvaterra-PA. A total of 15 excursions were held between July and November 2017 to collect ferns in all living forophytes of A. maripa in disturbed areas. The phorophytes were divided into three ecological zones (base, trunk and sheath) where the ferns were located. The total variables of forophyte height, diameter at breast height; shaft height and sheath insertion height. We found 91 phorophytes of A. maripa with ferns, among which 266 specimens distributed in four species belonging to four families. Phlebodium decumanum (Willd.) J.Sm. (Polypodiaceae) was the most representative fern species with 110 specimens, followed by Nephrolepis biserrata (Sw.) Schott (Lomariopsidaceae) (91), Vittaria lineata (L.) Sm (Pteridaceae) (59), and Lygodium venustum Sw. (Lygodiaceae) (six). The highest representativeness of fern specimens in the ecological zone of the sheath (77%) it is probably related to the environmental conditions found in this area, which presents low temperatures and higher humidity that favor the establishment and development of ferns. There was no significant correlation between the number of fern specimens with the total height of the phorophyte, diameter at breast height, shaft height and sheath insertion height. A. maripa proved to be an important component for the fern establishment in disturbed environments, especially in the ecological area of the sheath by microclimatic conditions favorable to the colonization of ferns.

VERTEBRATES AS POTENTIAL DISPERSERS OF PALM TREES IN AN URBAN ENVIRONMENT

Palm trees are important resources for many species of animals, which when consumed the fruits promote the movement of the seeds. Palm trees of the genus Attalea and Astrocaryum are often abundant in forest fragments. However, little is known about animals that consume their fruits. The objective of this work was to identify the animals that consume fruits of Attalea maripa and Astrocaryum aculeatum. The study was carried out in the forest fragment of (UFAM), in Manaus, Brazil. The observations were made from July to September / 2018 with the help of binoculars, camera traps and photographic. The camera traps were installed in an A. aculeatum tree and eight A. maripa trees for 24 hours. In general, 11 species of animals (primates, rodents, marsupials and birds) feeding on the fruits. The seeds were consumed near the mother trees. No predated seeds were found. The mammals corresponded to the majority (72.73%) of the animals that consumed the fruits. On the other hand, despite the minority (27.27%), birds also use such resources. Most of the large potential dispersers no longer exist in the UFAM fragment, but the representatives identified in the work benefit and play the fundamental role for the dispersion of fruits.

Estrutura demográfica de regeneração natural de palmeiras em fragmentos florestais na Amazônia Oriental

O objetivo desse trabalho foi comparar a estrutura da regeneração natural de palmeiras de fragmentos florestais nas comunidades de Agrovila Araipá e São Tomé no município de Aveiro (PA). Foi realizado o método de transecção em linha, sendo quatro transecções: duas em cada comunidade e distribuídos em dois ecossistemas diferentes: um em ecossistemas de floresta primária remanescente e outro em ecossistema de floresta secundária. Todos os indivíduos não reprodutivos da parcela foram registrados, sendo classificados em seis estádios de vida, mas apenas os quatros primeiros estádios foram inclusos no estudo. Cada transecção media 300m de comprimento e 10m de largura dentro de cada fragmento. Na floresta primária, foram 390 indivíduos distribuídos em duas espécies (Astrocaryum aculeatum Meyer e Attalea maripa (Aublet) Martius) e 226 indivíduos distribuídos em três (Attalea sp., Astrocaryum aculeatum Meyer e Attalea maripa (Aublet) Martius) espécies na floresta secundária. A análise da estrutura revelou alta ocorrência de indivíduos da espécie A. maripa em estádios iniciais de desenvolvimento, causa essa provável pela ausência e/ou ineficiência dos dispersores dessa espécie. A espécie A. aculeatum, não apresentou diferença em sua ocorrência nos dois tipos de florestas (primária e secundária). Entretanto, na floresta secundária, a ocorrência de Attalea sp. foi considerada relevante na área, ocorrendo exclusivamente nessa vegetação; isso, possivelmente porque a floresta primária está fragmentada, cercada de pastagens e plantios agrícolas, causando um desiquilíbrio no recrutamento da A. maripa, sendo a provável uma característica da espécie uma alta produção de frutos e consequentemente um maior número de indivíduos em estádios iniciais de vida.

Is the Peltogyne gracilipes monodominant forest characterised by distinct soils?

Various explanations have been put forward for monodominance in otherwise diverse tropical forests. This study assesses if the monodominance of Peltogyne gracilipes on Maraca Island in the northern Amazon can be related to edaphic factors. The basal area of P. gracilipes and the five other most common tree species on Maraca Island (Astrocaryum aculeatum, Attalea maripa, Ecclinusa guianensis, Licania kunthiana and Pradosia surinamensis) were recorded in 30 regularly-spaced 0.5 ha plots distributed over an area of 25 km2, for which data on topography and concentration of mineral elements in the soil were also obtained. Stems of P. gracilipes accounted for ≥50% of the basal area in five of the plots, which we consider indicative of monodominance, whilst the highest relative basal area that any of the other species achieved in any plot was 31%. The soils data explained more of the variation in the basal area of P. gracilipes than it did for the other five species. The presence vs. absence and basal area of P. gracilipes was positively related to concentrations of magnesium (Mg), aluminium (Al), iron (Fe), phosphorus (P) and silt in the soil and to Mg:Ca ratios. These soils were found in the plots at the lowest elevations, which suggests that drainage factors may also be important. Overall, our results suggest that edaphic factors may explain, at least partially, monodominance in this Amazonian forest.

MORFOTIPOS DE FRUTOS E MORFOLOGIA DE PLÂNTULAS DE <i>Attalea maripa</i> (Aubl.) Mart.

Attalea maripa (Aubl.) Mart. (inajá) é uma espécie oleaginosa que ocorre na floresta tropical, com grande potencial para ser usada como fonte de matéria-prima para biocombustível. Apesar de sua importância, suas populações naturais estão sendo gradualmente eliminadas durante a limpeza de pastos e para o plantio de culturas agrícolas. Desse modo, a pesquisa teve por objetivo avaliar as características biométricas e morfológicas de matrizes, cachos, frutos, sementes e plântulas de inajá em sistema silvipastoril, em Bonito e Nova Timboteua, no Pará. Foram selecionadas cinco matrizes, cinco cachos e 500 frutos por procedência, para a avaliação morfométrica. Na descrição morfológica do fruto e do pirênio, foram usados 100 frutos. Para o estudo de morfologia de plântulas, foram semeados 100 pirênios. Os dados foram analisados pela estatística descritiva, Teste t, análise de correlação e análise discriminante. O inajá é uma palmeira de porte ereto, com estipe simples e cilíndrico sem perfilhos. O endocarpo e o mesocarpo são as partes que mais contribuem com o peso do fruto. Existe variação no tamanho, no peso e na forma dos frutos e dos pirênios. Há três classes de morfotipos de frutos: pequenos, médios e grandes. A plântula de inajá se estabelece quando ocorre a expansão da terceira bainha cotiledonar e a formação da primeira folha.

SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF SPONTANEOUS PRODUCTION OF Attalea maripa (Aubl) Mart. IN THE LOW TOCANTINS

ABSTRACT The production of biofuels from native Amazonian palm trees, belonging to the family of Arecaceae, like Attalea maripa (Aubl) Mart. (Maripa palm), are objects of studies of alternative energy sources for the biofuels production. Thus, the aim of this research was to evaluate the spatial dynamics of agronomic variables of Maripa palm crop production associated with the characteristics of the sampling sites in a spontaneous growth area in the Low Tocantins region. 100 palms of A. maripa were selected, of spontaneous growth and in production phase, on a 10 ha area in the municipality of Cametá / PA, in which the morpho-agronomical variables were collected (MIN, FIN, ABN, LN, DBH, AWAB and AFW), from January 2014 to June 2014. The semivariograms were produced for each variable, which presented a spatial dependence range of 75 meters to MIN, FIN, AWAB and AFW, 80 meters to LN and DBH and 98 meters to ABN. The area of reach found was 17,671.5 m² for MIN, FIN, AWAB and AFW variables, 20,106.2 m² for LN and DBH and 30,171.9 m² for ABN. The data of the variables were adjusted to the spherical model presenting determination coefficient (R²) that ranged from 0.57 to 0.99. The spatial dependence index (SDI) for MIN and FIN variables was 0.49 and 0.31, respectively, indicating moderate spatial dependence. For ABN, LN, DBH and AWAB variables ranged from 0.17 to 0.22, resulting in poor spatial dependence. The AFW variable presented SDI of 0.77. For the visual analysis of the spatial distribution of the studied variables, kriging maps were created.

Hosts of Raoiella indica Hirst (Acari: Tenuipalpidae) Native to the Brazilian Amazon

The expansion of red palm mite (RPM), Raoiella indica (Acari: Tenuipalpidae) in Brazil could impact negatively the native plant species, especially of the family Arecaceae. To determine which species could be at risk, we investigated the development and reproductive potential of R. indica on 19 plant species including 13 native species to the Brazilian Amazon (12 Arecaceae and one Heliconiaceae), and six exotic species, four Arecaceae, a Musaceae and a Zingiberaceae. Values of the instantaneous rate of increase (ri) were initially estimated at 7, 14, 21 and 28 days after infestation of each species. Higher values of ri (> 0.05) were determined on the Arecaceae Adonidia merrillii, Astrocaryum jauari, Cocos nucifera, Bactris simplicifrons, Mauritia flexuosa, Phoenix dactylifera and Socratea exorrhiza, and on the Heliconiaceae Heliconia psittacorum Sassy; these were classified as “potential primary hosts”. Lower, but still positive values of ri (0-0.05) were determined on the Arecaceae Bactris maraja, Oenocarpus bacaba, Oenocarpus bataua and on the Musaceae Musa × paradisiaca (Prata variety); these were classified as “potential secondary hosts”. Negative values of ri were determined for the remaining plants, i.e., the Arecaceae Astrocaryum aculeatum, Attalea maripa, Bactris gasipaes, Elaeis guineensis, Euterpe oleracea, Euterpe precatoria, and the Zingiberaceae Alpinia rosea; these were considered “non-hosts”. Species with ri < 0.05 were considered not to be threatened by the RPM. Biological parameters of RPM were evaluated on the plant species with positive ri (except B. maraja) and two native species with negative ri (E. oleracea and E. precatoria). Mean developmental time ranged from 14.7 days on C. nucifera to 21.4 days on Musa × paradisiaca, showing a significant influence of the plant substrate. Immature viability, oviposition rate, net reproductive rate (R0) and intrinsic rate of increase (rm) were affected by the plant species.

Relative palatability and growth performance of capoeira species as supplementary forages in the NE-Amazon

In northeastern Pará, smallholder agriculture systems are still based on secondary forest fallows, nationally called “capoeira”, presumed to contain a remarkable amount of underutilized valuable woody species, for instance as supplementary forage for cattle. We tested five promising capoeira species, namely Phenakospermum guyannense, Cecropia palmata, Attalea maripa, Inga edulis, and Abarema jupunba by comparing its relative palatability—i.e., the palatability differences between the tested species and the reference forage legumes, forage grass, and between the other tested species-, heights, biomass production, and main nutritive values with the well-known tropical forage legumes Cratylia argentea and Flemingia macrophylla. Additionally, the locally common domesticated species Tithonia diversifolia, Mangifera indica, and Racosperma mangium were also included in the trial, all implemented in a randomized block design on a Brachiaria-pasture (n=2000 saplings, 8 replication blocks). After two years of establishment, four steers with an average body mass of 506kg browsed the trial (2 AU/ha). The relative palatability testing showed that A. jupunba, M. indica and also surprisingly R. mangium (all >20% of its respective total biomass) matched the consumed biomass of F. macrophylla, while C. palmata (>60%) even surpassed very palatable C. argentea. R. mangium also had the highest biomass production, while the other species showed just regular growth and establishing rates. Protein contents of all species were above 6%, most of them higher than 10% and in the case of T. diversifolia even above 20%. Thus, all tested species almost reached the quality of the reference legumes. However, as plant secondary compounds were not regarded in this trial, recommendations as supplementary forage plants can only be given with reservations. The results suggest that smallholders possess cheap forage supplement alternatives on their farms and even on their pasture plots, which simply have to be tolerated by just pruning them into accessible heights for animals. However, sapling transplantation from shady capoeiras on old slightly degraded pastures for biomass enrichment cannot be recommended.

Palm community transitions along a topographic gradient from floodplain to terra firme in the eastern Amazon

Palms show clear niche segregation patterns along topographic gradients in tropical forests, with some species associated to terra firme and others to seasonally flooded areas. The aim of this study was to quantitatively describe the fine-scale spatial variation within a palm community, tracking the changes in species' abundance along environmental gradients associated with a perennial stream the eastern Amazon. The study of palm communities was based on 60 forest plots in which all adult palms were counted. We found a total of 566 palms in a community containing 11 species. Furthermore, we found a significant separation in the palm community between seasonally-flooded and terra firme forests. We found a gradient with various densities of the three most abundant palm species within the first 100 m away from the flooded area. Other species were located exclusively in the terra firme forest. The abundance of the six most common species were distributed in relation to humidity gradients from floodplains to terra firme, with palm distribution from the most flood-tolerant to the least flood-tolerant palm species as follows: Euterpe oleracea, Attalea phalerata and Socratea exorrhiza (species with floodplain affinity), Astrocaryum gynacanthum, Astrocaryum aculeatum, Attalea maripa (species with terra firme affinity)

Morphometric Characterization of Attalea maripa (Arecaceae) from Roraima State, Brazil

We characterized three different morphotypes of inaja ( Atallea maripa (Aublet.) Mart.) based on the stipe foliar insertion: columnar (morphotype M1), semi-spiraled (morphotype M2) and spiraled (morphotype M3) insertion. The present study quantified the number of leaves, the production of bunches and the DBH of the matrices and made morphometric analyses of the fruits and morphological characterization of the seedlings, for each morphotype. Bunches bearing A. maripa fruits, originating from natural regeneration, were collected from silvopastoral systems distributed throughout six counties of the state of Roraima, in order to study their morphometry. Four replicates of twenty diaspores were sown according to the Seed Analysis Rules, for seedling morphology study. The semi-spiraled morphotype presented the highest values of size and weight of fruits and seeds (diaspores). Morphotype M2 is likely to be an intermediate form of a widely variable character within A. maripa . The most frequent inflorescences amongst the studied morphotypes showed to be predominantly female, androgynous and predominantly male inflorescences were also found along with more than one type of inflorescence per individual. There is a wide variability as to the coloring of the fruits regardless of their origin. Atallea maripa seedlings did not present the typical characteristics described for the genus Attalea .

Comparação entre floresta primária e secundária com ocorrência de Attalea maripa (Aubl.) Mart.: estudo de caso na Amazônia Oriental

Two natural forests, one primary and one secondary, with the occurrence of Attalea maripa (Aubl.) Mart., located in the community of Araipa (4° 0’ 46.70” S and 55° 33’ 9.35” W), municipality of Aveiro – State of Para, Brazil, along the axis perpendicular to the right margin of Tapajos River, were evaluated in terms of floristic characterization, transmittance of photosynthetic active radiation and litter. The ecological changes resulting from the cutting and burning crop causes uncontrolled increase of individuals of A. maripa, acting, therefore, as an indicator of human disturbance of these ecosystems.

Responses of squirrel monkeys to seasonal changes in food availability in an eastern Amazonian forest

Tropical forests are characterized by marked temporal and spatial variation in productivity, and many primates face foraging problems associated with seasonal shifts in fruit availability. In this study, I examined seasonal changes in diet and foraging behaviors of two groups of squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus), studied for 12 months in Eastern Brazilian Amazonia, an area characterized by seasonal rainfall. Squirrel monkeys were primarily insectivorous (79% of feeding and foraging time), with fruit consumption highest during the rainy season. Although monkeys fed from 68 plant species, fruit of Attalea maripa palms accounted for 28% of annual fruit-feeding records. Dietary shifts in the dry season were correlated with a decline in ripe A. maripa fruits. Despite pronounced seasonal variation in rainfall and fruit abundance, foraging efficiency, travel time, and distance traveled remained stable between seasons. Instead, squirrel monkeys at this Eastern Amazonian site primarily dealt with the seasonal decline in fruit by showing dietary flexibility. Consumption of insects, flowers, and exudates increased during the dry season. In particular, their foraging behavior at this time strongly resembled that of tamarins (Saguinus sp.) and consisted of heavy use of seed-pod exudates and specialized foraging on large-bodied orthopterans near the forest floor. Comparisons with squirrel monkeys at other locations indicate that, across their geographic range, Saimiri use a variety of behavioral tactics during reduced periods of fruit availability.

Invertebrate and Vertebrate Seed Predation in the Amazonian Palm Attalea maripa1

ABSTRACTSpatial‐scale‐dependent patterns of Attalea maripa seed predation and removal by the beetle Pachymerus cardo and vertebrates were examined in a palm patch and its adjacent forest in southeastern Amazon. Seed survivorship depended on the distance from the palm patch, but was unrelated to distance from individual fruiting palms.

Arborescent palm seed morphology and seedling distribution

This study examines how the seed morphology of two large arborescent palms, Attalea maripa (Aubl.) Mart. and Astrocaryum aculeatum G. Mey, may affect their seed shadow in a seasonally dry Amazonian forest. In addition to being smaller and produced in larger numbers than those of A. aculeatum, A. maripa seeds also presented a substantially lower amount of nutritional reserves available for the embryo. However, A. maripa seedlings were found in much higher numbers than those of A. aculeatum. The results suggest that, within the spatial scale considered, the seed rain of A. maripa is more restricted to the area surrounding around reproductive conspecifics than that of A. aculeatum. Furthermore, in comparison with those of A. aculeatum, the smaller seeds of A. maripa might be less attractive to scatterhoarding rodents (e.g. Dasyprocta aguti). The pattern observed emphasizes the importance of scatterhoarding rodents as dispersers of large-seeded plant species in Neotropical forests.

The importance of forest disturbance for the recruitment of the large arborescent palm Attalea maripa in a seasonally-dry Amazonian forest

The hypothesis that forest disturbance is important for the recruitment of the large arborescent palms Attalea maripa was tested with a natural experiment in the Pinkaití site (7º 46'S; 51º 57'W), a seasonally-dry Amazonian forest. A 8,000 m long trail, that crosses, in its lower half, an open forest along the Pinkaití stream bottomlands and, on its upper half, a dense forest on a hill, was divided in 160 0.15 ha (50x30 m) sampling units. At each unit, adult palms were counted and percentage of canopy openness was measured with a concave spherical densiometer. The palms were nearly five times more abundant at the bottomlands, whose forest had a canopy 14.8% more open than that of the hill; supporting the hypothesis that disturbance is important for their recruitment.

Tree species diversity in a seasonally-dry forest: the case of the Pinkaití site, in the Kayapó Indigenous Area, Southeastern limits of the Amazon

This study investigates patterns of forest structure and tree species diversity in an anthropogenic palm grove and undisturbed areas at the seasonally-dry Pinkaití research station, in the Kayapó Indigenous Area. This site, managed by the Conservation International do Brasil, is the most southeastern site floristically surveyed in the Amazon until now. The secondary and a nearby undisturbed forest were sampled in a group of 52 floristic plots of 0.0625-ha (25x25-m) where all trees with DBH > 10 cm were measured and identified. The analyses were complemented with other two floristic plots of 1-ha (10x1000-m). The present study has shown that the Pinkaití, like other seasonally-dry forests, have great heterogeneity in forest structure and composition, associated with biotic characteristics of the most important tree species, natural disturbance and history of land-use. The palm grove, moderately dominated by the arborescent palm Attalea maripa (Aubl.) Mart., presented high tree species diversity and was floristically similar to undisturbed forests at the study site. It is discussed the importance of large arborescent palms for the seasonally-dry Amazon forests regeneration.

Stem density and growth of Attalea maripa and Astrocaryum aculeatum: implication for arborescent palms distribution across Amazonian forests

This study examines aspects of the stem density and growth of two large arborescent palms Attalea maripa and Astrocaryum aculeatum and discusses their implication for the palm trees distribution in Amazonia. Stem density and growth were investigated through both laboratory measurements and field estimates of growth rates. The densities of stem samples collected within one individual of each studied species were very distinct. The samples of A. maripa stem were more homogeneous in density than those of A. aculeatum, both from the internal to the external, and from the lower to the upper parts of the stem. Field estimates of stem growth rates revealed that A. maripa growth is also more constant through development in height. Short A. aculeatum palms had faster growth rates than A. maripa, as they get taller, stem growth rates are reduced and approach A. maripa rates. The implications for arborescent palms distribution across Amazonian forests are discussed.

Pulp handling by vertebrate seed dispersers increases palm seed predation by bruchid beetles in the northern Amazon

Abstract The simultaneous use of fruits and seeds by invertebrate seed predators and vertebrate seed dispersers produces complex ecological interactions that reduce the predictability of seed fate. Cocosoid palm seeds in the Neotropics are subject to high mortality by bruchid beetle infestation and such attack is the major cause of mortality for seeds of the palm Attalea maripa at our study site in the northern Brazilian Amazon. The exocarp and mesocarp of 1400 fruits were manipulated in different ways to simulate handling by vertebrates. No eggs of the bruchid beetle, Pachymerus cardo, were laid on intact control fruits, while the highest numbers of eggs were received by fruits whose exocarp and mesocarp had been partially removed, as if by primates and rodents (mean of 15.9 and 18.9 eggs fruit−1, respectively, during the peak fruiting season). Fruits with intact mesocarp but no exocarp, and fruits with all mesocarp and exocarp removed, received low numbers of eggs (mean of 4.6 and 6.6 eggs per fruit, respectively, during the peak fruiting season). Thus both exocarp and mesocarp deter oviposition, and removal of these fruit structures increases fruit susceptibility to infestation. Oviposition rates declined as the fruiting season progressed, but oviposition preferences remained the same. Seed mortality was high for any fruit on which eggs were laid. Large rodents and primates, which have been considered among the most effective seed dispersers for large‐seeded Neotropical trees such as palms, actually increased the susceptibility of seeds to bruchid beetle attack. Removal of (intact) seeds by other dispersers may be necessary to ensure seed survival. These results indicate that the reliability of seed dispersers cannot be gauged without a complete understanding of variables that affect seed viability.