Attack Tactics Research Articles

Are agonistic behavior patterns signals or combat tactics — Or does it matter? Targets as organizing principles of fighting

During competitive interactions, such as fighting and predation, animals perform various actions, some of which are easy to characterize and label, some of which are reliably repeated. Such ‘behavior patterns’ are often the measures of choice when comparing across species and experimental contexts. However, as Bob Blanchard and others have pointed out, such measurements can be misleading as in competitive interactions in which the animals compete for some advantage, often the biting or otherwise contacting a particular target on the opponent's body. In this context, the animals' behavior is better analyzed in terms of the tactics of attack and defense deployed by the combatants to gain or avoid contact with those targets. Several examples are shown to reveal that this is an important distinction as simply scoring predefined behavior patterns can obscure the dynamic context in which the actions are performed. This can lead to confounding species and experimental differences and the mislabeling of combat actions as communicatory signals.

Simulating predator attacks on schools: Evolving composite tactics

One hypothesis about the origins and evolution of coordinated animal movements is that they may serve as a defensive mechanism against predation. Earlier studies of the possible evolution of coordinated movement in prey concentrated on predators with simple attack tactics. Numerous studies, however, suggest that to overcome the apparent defensive mechanisms which grouping and coordinated movement may provide to prey, predators in nature appear to use elaborate target selection and pursuit/hunting tactics. We here study predators that use composite tactics, (a) predators that in successive attacks based on probability choose one of several simple attack tactics, (b) predators that first disperse prey and then pick off isolated individuals. We develop an individual based model of a group of prey that is attacked by a solitary predator agent. By using genetic algorithms, we enable the predator agent to adapt (a) the probability that a specific tactic will be selected in the next attack, (b) the distance at which it stops dispersing the prey and the radius within which it searches for the most isolated prey. With a direct competition of the evolved predator agents we examine which is the better tactic against a group of prey moving in a polarized cohesive manner in three different settings. Our results suggest that, (a) a delayed response is an efficient advanced prey defence tactic, (b) predator confusion plays an important role in the evolution of composite tactics, and (c) when confusion is at play, the dispersing predator is a much better hunter, capable of at least partially diminishing the effectiveness of the prey's delayed response.

Goshawk hunt and prey-evasion strategies revealed

![Figure][1] Shinta wearing spy camera helmet in flight. Photo credit: Robert Musters. Stealth is the goshawk's greatest asset. Plummeting out of the air, the raptors fix their gaze on the oblivious victim below. Intrigued by the birds' attack tactics, Suzanne Amador Kane from Haverford

One Good Turn Deserves Another: Combat versus Other Functions of Acrobatic Maneuvers in the Play Fighting of Vervet Monkeys (Chlorocebus aethiops)

During play fighting, animals make a variety of movements, some of which seem unrelated to the ongoing actions of the partner. Among such movements are the jumps and rotations reported in many species of Old World monkeys. In the present study, videotaped sequences of jumps and rotations performed by juvenile vervet monkeys were analyzed. Using the Eshkol-Wachman Movement Notation (EWMN) the sequences were described frame-by-frame revealing that about 82% of the jumps and rotations were correlated with the movements performed by the partner, consistent with the view that these movements are used as tactics of attack and defense. The majority of the remaining 18% occurred in contexts in which the performer solicited playful attacks from the partner. A small number of the rest were performed in a manner consistent with the movements being imposed by the performer to increase the difficulty in contacting the partner. The same distribution was present in both captive and free-living monkeys. Thus the analyses show that while most jumps were combat-related, these movements can occur in a variety of functional contexts.

Adversarial attacks against intrusion detection systems: Taxonomy, solutions and open issues

Intrusion Detection Systems (IDSs) are one of the key components for securing computing infrastructures. Their objective is to protect against attempts to violate defense mechanisms. Indeed, IDSs themselves are part of the computing infrastructure, and thus they may be attacked by the same adversaries they are designed to detect. This is a relevant aspect, especially in safety–critical environments, such as hospitals, aircrafts, nuclear power plants, etc. To the best of our knowledge, this survey is the first work to present an overview on adversarial attacks against IDSs. In particular, this paper will provide the following original contributions: (a) a general taxonomy of attack tactics against IDSs; (b) an extensive description of how such attacks can be implemented by exploiting IDS weaknesses at different abstraction levels; (c) for each attack implementation, a critical investigation of proposed solutions and open points. Finally, this paper will highlight the most promising research directions for the design of adversary-aware, harder-to-defeat IDS solutions. To this end, we leverage on our research experience in the field of intrusion detection, as well as on a thorough investigation of the relevant related works published so far.

Latent Text Mining for Cybercrime Forensics

Recent research reveals that the number of cyber-attacks has been doubled in the past three years. This is a devastating growth of the number of cyber-attacks, and it reveals a serious business problem around the world. Existing intrusion detection systems (IDSs), intrusion prevention systems (IPSs), and anti-malware systems mainly rely on low-level network traffic features or program code signatures to detect cyber-attacks. However, since hackers can constantly change their attack tactics by, it is extremely difficult for existing security solutions to detect cyber-attacks. There are increasing more evidences showing that cybercriminals tend to exchange cybercrime knowledge and transact via online social media. Accordingly, it presents unprecedented opportunities for security intelligence experts to tap into online social media to extract the vital security intelligence for cyber-attack forensics. The main contributions of this paper are the design, development, and evaluation of a Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA)-based latent text mining model for cyber-attack forensics. Our preliminary evaluation of the proposed latent text mining model based on a real-world data set crawled from Twitter and Blog sites shows that it significantly outperforms the probabilistic latent semantic indexing (pLSI) method in terms of extracting more relevant and richer concepts describing real-world cyber-attack incidents.

Attack and Serve Performances According to the Match Period and Quality of Opposition in Elite Volleyball Matches

The purpose of this study was to examine attack and serve performances in the beginning and end of the initial and final sets of volleyball matches according to the quality of opposition. Six hundred rallies from the Men's World Cup 2007 were selectively sampled from a total of 5,117 rallies observed using video match analysis. Rally-by-rally double moving averages of serve and attack efficacy were plotted by 4 different match periods (first 15 rallies of the initial set; first 15 rallies of the final set; last 15 rallies of the initial set; and last 15 rallies of the final set). Approximate entropy values were calculated to analyze the amount of data randomness. The results were examined according to the quality of opposition in 2 types of games: higher level (HIGH) including the first 4 ranked teams and lower level (LOW) composed of the last 5 ranked teams. The results suggested that volleyball matches presented different profiles depending on the match period. Considering the teams' level, a greater adaptation was found within the HIGH × HIGH matches according to the match period and a more strategic use of the serve and attack tactics taking into account the type of the set (initial or final set) and the period (beginning or end of the set). The findings emphasize the need for coaches and players to perceive the most important points at the end of the set and to manage their effort throughout the match attempting to reach this period in optimal condition. Therefore, it might be beneficial to coaches to stress the need to perform at the highest level, particularly at the end of the training drills that simulate competition scenarios.

Killer whales (Orcinus orca) hunting for walruses (Odobenus rosmarus divergens) near Retkyn Spit, Chukotka

Group hunting by killer whales for walruses was observed in August 18, 2008, in the littoral area (3 km from the haulout of walruses, Retkyn Spit, Chukotka). The group of killer whales consisted of seven adults (one adult male did not participate in attacks) and two calves. Based on prey type, these killer whales were mammal-eating. The total duration of their hunt activity was not less than 95 min. The hunt consisted of three phases. The first phase was an attack on the group of walruses and choice of individual prey; the second phase was attacks on the chosen walrus; and the third (final) phase was a decrease in activity of killer whales and leaving group with walrus from sea shore. The main behavioral patterns of killer whales during the hunt were discerned. Two killer whales tried to kill walruses by chasing them and jumping out of the water on the shore. The video analysis of the “attack phase” showed that killer whales made 55 attacks on the walrus during 17.3 min. On average, each killer whale attacked the walrus seven times. The attack tactics of killer whales, the number of movements, and the location of killer whales (adults and calves) relative to each other and to the walrus were described. Well coordination of their movements and group actions was observed.

Simultaneous RNA-Seq Analysis of a Mixed Transcriptome of Rice and Blast Fungus Interaction

A filamentous fungus, Magnaporthe oryzae, is a causal agent of rice blast disease, which is one of the most serious diseases affecting cultivated rice, Oryza sativa. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying both rice defense and fungal attack are not yet fully understood. Extensive past studies have characterized many infection-responsive genes in the pathogen and host plant, separately. To understand the plant-pathogen interaction comprehensively, it is valuable to monitor the gene expression profiles of both interacting organisms simultaneously in the same infected plant tissue. Although the host-pathogen interaction during the initial infection stage is important for the establishment of infection, the detection of fungal gene expression in infected leaves at the stage has been difficult because very few numbers of fungal cells are present. Using the emerging RNA-Seq technique, which has a wide dynamic range for expression analyses, we analyzed the mixed transcriptome of rice and blast fungus in infected leaves at 24 hours post-inoculation, which is the point when the primary infection hyphae penetrate leaf epidermal cells. We demonstrated that our method detected the gene expression of both the host plant and pathogen simultaneously in the same infected leaf blades in natural infection conditions without any artificial treatments. The upregulation of 240 fungal transcripts encoding putative secreted proteins was observed, suggesting that these candidates of fungal effector genes may play important roles in initial infection processes. The upregulation of transcripts encoding glycosyl hydrolases, cutinases and LysM domain-containing proteins were observed in the blast fungus, whereas pathogenesis-related and phytoalexin biosynthetic genes were upregulated in rice. Furthermore, more drastic changes in expression were observed in the incompatible interactions compared with the compatible ones in both rice and blast fungus at this stage. Our mixed transcriptome analysis is useful for the simultaneous elucidation of the tactics of host plant defense and pathogen attack.

A Geographic Information Systems (GIS) Analysis of Spatiotemporal Patterns of Terrorist Incidents in Iraq 2004–2009

As terrorism on all scales continues, it is necessary to improve understanding of terrorist and insurgent activities. This article takes a Geographic Information Systems (GIS) approach to advance the understanding of spatial, social, political, and cultural triggers that influence terrorism incidents. Spatial, temporal, and spatiotemporal patterns of terrorist attacks are examined to improve knowledge about terrorist systems of training, planning, and actions. The results of this study aim to provide a foundation for understanding attack patterns and tactics in emerging havens as well as inform the creation and implementation of various counterterrorism measures.

Determinants of attack tactics in Youth male elite volleyball

The aim of this study was to identify determinants of the attack tactics’ effectiveness in Elite Youth Men’s Volleyball. Eleven matches of the 2007 World Youth Championship were analyzed, totalling 863 actions of reception, 1191 actions of attack and 435 actions of defence. Multinomial logistic regression was applied in order to analyze the association of reception effect, defence effect, attack tempo and attack type, with the attack effectiveness. The reliability of the observation was calculated through Cohen’s Kappa, with values being above 0.81. This study showed that the powerful attack increased the chances of scoring in both side-out and transition. Regarding the timing of the attack, 1st tempo increased the chances of scoring in transition. These results show that the Elite Youth male’s game claims a more offensive game through powerful and quick attacks.

Synthesis of attack actions using model checking for the verification of security protocols

AbstractModel checking cryptographic protocols have evolved to a valuable method for discovering counterintuitive security flaws, which makes it possible for a hostile agent to subvert the goals of the protocol. Published works and existing security analysis tools are usually based on general intruder models that embody at least some aspects of the seminal work of Dolev–Yao, in an attempt to detect failures of secrecy. In this work, we propose an alternative intruder model, which is based on a thorough analysis of how potential attacks might proceed. We introduce an intruder model that provides an open‐ended base for the integration of multiple basic attack tactics. Those attack tactics have the possibility to be combined, in a way to compose complex attack actions that require a number of procedural steps from the intruder's side, such as a Denial of Service attack. In our model checking approach, protocol correctness is checked by appropriate user‐supplied assertions or reachability of invalid end states. The analyst can express security properties of specific attack actions that are not restricted to safety violations captured by a generic model checker. The described intruder model methodology was implemented within the SPIN model checker for verifying two security protocols, Micromint and PayWord. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Modeling and Analysis of Security Protocols Using Colored Petri Nets

Security protocols are the basis of security in networks. Therefore, it is essential to ensure that these protocols function correctly. However, it is difficult to design security protocols that are immune to malicious attack, since good analysis techniques are lacking. In this paper, the current main analysis techniques using Colored Petri Nets (CP-Nets) for analysis of security protocols are introduced. Based on the techniques, a new method using CP-Nets for the analysis of security protocols is presented. Specially, in the new method, an intruder CP-Net model is presented that provides an open-ended base for the integration of multiple attack tactics. This is a viable approach to overcome the state space explosion problem. Furthermore, the automated analysis tools CPN Tools is used. The Andrew secure RPC protocol is chosen to illustrate how a security protocol is analyzed using the new method. After model checking, an attack is found which the same as the one found by Gavin Lowe. These are stunning confirmations of the validity of the new method for analyzing security protocols.

English

Prioritising emergency bridgeworks assessment has been a key to winning battles in combat circumstances because of soldier safety, attack or defence tactics, and logistic supply ability. However, an imprecise or vague satisfaction level of importance of criteria may also affect the prioritising evaluation of bridgeworks under military consideration. In this paper, the fuzzy set theory is employed to treat this aspect. With linguistic variables, fuzzy numbers and an enhanced fuzzy weighted average approach will be used. The proposed approach is used to investigate an example to illustrate its applications in emergency bridgeworks assessment. The approach is shown to be useful and effective. In order to make computing and ranking results easier and to increase recruiting productivity, a computer-based decision support system has been developed, which may help the commander make decisions more efficiently. Defence Science Journal, 2010, 60(4), pp.451-461 , DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.14429/dsj.60.485

Targets and Tactics of Play Fighting: Competitive versus Cooperative Styles of Play in Japanese and Tonkean Macaques

Macaques are the most geographically widespread and behaviorally diverse primate genus, and although macaque species share the same, basic social structure, they display broad inter specificvariation in patterns of adult social behavior. Based on these patterns, macaque species have been arranged along a 4-grade scale for social style. At one end of the scale, there are grade 1 species (e.g., Japanese macaques) that have highly hierarchical and despotic social systems, and at the other end, grade 4 species (e.g., Tonkean macaques) that have more relaxed and egalitarian social systems. We predicted that a species from the more despotic end of the spectrum should have more competitive play fights and that a species from the egalitarian end, more cooperative ones. A detailed analysis of videotaped sequences of juvenile play fighting in Tonkean and Japanese macaques was used to characterize the targets and tactics of attack and defense. Even though the two species have a similar behavioral repertoire, there are significant differences in how that repertoire is used and these differences are consistent with one species having more competitive interactions than the other. Contrasting multi-animal play fights versus pairs showed that the more cooperative style of the Tonkean macaques is further exaggerated. The results suggest that differences in styles of attack anddefense in play fighting may be influenced by differences in the species’ social systems.

Feeding tactics of a behaviorally plastic predator, summer flounder ( Paralichthys dentatus)

In a series of laboratory experiments, the feeding behaviors of summer flounder ( Paralichthys dentatus) were examined in response to squid and fish prey. Attack and capture tactics were evaluated for their influence on capture success, handling time, and prey-type selectivity. The ambush tactic was the primary behavior (50.6%) used to attack squid. Secondary attack types included active pursuit (42.7%) and stalking (6.7%). Regardless of the prey species targeted or the type of attack employed, summer flounder were equally efficient in capturing prey; capture success rates ranged from 50%–83%. The majority of prey were swallowed in a headfirst orientation (55.3% of squid), however swallow alignment did not significantly affect handling time. Approach times during ambush attacks were greater overall in comparison to active attacks, and relative prey size significantly affected capture times. Despite additional costs in handling time, summer flounder actively selected for mummichogs ( Fundulus spp.) (attack rate (attacks per minute) = 0.11) over longfin squid ( Loligo pealeii) (0.08) and Atlantic silversides ( Menidia menidia) (0.02). Differential attack rates favoring mummichogs suggests a preference towards demersal prey. In the presence of relatively large, fast-moving, and pelagic prey, summer flounder used a greater diversity of attack tactics than have been observed previously under controlled conditions. The behavioral plasticity exhibited by summer flounder is likely mediated by prey behavior and local availability of prey resources in inshore and offshore environments.

Hunting Tactics in a Cobweb Spider (Araneae-Theridiidae) and the Evolution of Behavioral Plasticity

Although behavior is being gradually incorporated into phylogenetic studies, the understanding of the evolution of one of its main characteristics, plasticity or adjustment to environmental features, is still a challenge, mainly due to the lack of comparative data. In this paper we focus on the plasticity of the predatory repertoire of Achaearanea digitus, analyzing its responses to two prey types, and discuss the evolution of behavioral plasticity based on a comparison to the foraging repertoire of other araneoid sheetweavers and on a review of hunting tactics among the larger group of orbweavers. Contrasting with what was observed for other families, spiders of the family Theridiidae (among them A. digitus) show a small set of attack tactics, and a quite stereotyped predatory performance. These spiders regularly attack their prey with a typical sticky silk wrapping tactic, but fail to use other tactics such as bite–wrap or bite–pull out prey, which are commonly used in other spider families. We show that this stereotypy is typical of the foraging repertoire of araneoid sheetweavers. Plotting the mean size of the attack tactics repertoire on the phylogeny of Orbiculariae shows that high predatory stereotypy is a plesiomorphy of the whole araneoidea group, and that evolutionary increases in plasticity occur independently two times in the group, among Araneidae and Nephilidae. The maintenance of a plesiomorphic, stereotyped predatory behavior among theridiids is probably due to the evolution of a special behavioral technique, which includes the simultaneous use of the fourth legs during wrapping attacks. Since the individuals in the species of this group of sheetweavers face less variable environments than do orbweavers, they should indeed evolve more stereotyped phenotypes, but nevertheless their evolved predatory stereotypy contrasts with plasticity in other aspects of their foraging behavior (web building). Since, in this case, both stereotypy and plasticity result from a simplification in the mechanisms underlying behavioral expression, we suggest that less variable environments select not exactly for behavioral stereotypy, but rather to the simplification of these information processing mechanisms.

Analysis of Fireground Standard Operating Guidelines/Procedures Compliance for Austin Fire Department

There is general belief that the rate of firefighter injury can be lowered by creating fire service cultures where firefighters more closely follow their training and standard operating guidelines (SOGs). That is, there is a desire to minimize cases where firefighters operate outside of the SOGs. Interestingly, there is scant data on the rate of adherence to SOGs in the fire service. In an attempt to better understand the compliance to fireground standard operating guidelines, an analysis of firefighter compliance to Austin Fire Department’s guidelines was performed. We analyze over 1000 survey responses taken from Austin firefighters on fireground operations over a 1.5 year time frame. This paper does not critique the department’s procedures or the officers’ actions, but simply reports the compliance data and discusses some implications of the data. Austin Fire Department (AFD) in the process of creating their current version of standard operating guidelines developed an initial tactical function assignment rule called the “90/10” rule. This rule states that in 90% of situations, personnel are expected to comply with their SOG specified initial tactical functions. Although this rule was proposed several years ago there had not been testing to indicate if the rule was being upheld. By analyzing the initial tactical functions, we first discuss the rate of adherence to the 90/10 rule. We then conducted a more in-depth study to test if other SOG directives (e.g., tactics) are complied to with the same frequency. There were three specific tactics studied – a size-up tactic, a primary firefighter safety tactic, and a fire attack tactic - which had varying ranges of compliance compared to the “90/10” rule. After examining the compliance data, computer simulations were conducted on the fire attack tactic to better understand how a change in the tactic could affect firefighter working conditions.

A knife in the back: use of prey‐specific attack tactics by araneophagic jumping spiders (Araneae: Salticidae)

AbstractThree species of Portia (Portia africana from Kenya, Portia fimbriata from Australia and Portia labiata from the Philippines) were tested with flies Drosophila immigrans and Musca domestica and with web‐building spiders Badumna longinquus and Pholcus phalangioides. Badumna longinquus has powerful chelicerae, but not especially long legs, whereas Ph. phalangioides has exceptionally long legs, but only small, weak chelicerae. Typically, Portia sighted flies, walked directly towards them and attacked without adjusting orientation. However, Portia's attacks on the spiders were aimed primarily at the cephalothorax instead of the legs or abdomen. Portia usually targeted the posterior‐dorsal region of B. longinquus' cephalothorax by attacking this species from above and behind. When the prey was Ph. phalangioides, attack orientation was defined primarily by opportunistic gaps between this species' long legs (gaps through which Portia could contact the pholcid's body without contacting one of the pholcid's legs). Portia's attack strategy appears to be an adjustment to the different types of risk posed by different types of prey.

Experience and cortical control over the pubertal transition to rougher play fighting in rats

With the onset of puberty, play fighting in rats decreases in frequency and the tactics of attack and defense that are used are rougher. Previous studies have shown that the changes in the frequency of play and in the use of defensive tactics arise independently of social experience. Furthermore, while the former involves subcortical regulation, the latter depends on cortical mechanisms. In this study, the possible mechanisms regulating the developmental changes in the tactics of attack were examined. Two experiments were conducted using male rats. In the first study, rats reared in isolation from weaning were compared to rats reared in pairs, and were tested in the juvenile and early post-pubertal phases (30 and 60 days postnatally). In the second experiment, rats with their cortex removed shortly after birth were compared to sham-treated controls, and were tested in pairs at both the juvenile and early adult phases (30 and 90 days). Two measures of ‘roughness,’ derived from previous studies, were measured. Results showed that isolation-reared rats had the typical age-related changes in roughness of attack, whereas decorticated rats failed to show this age-related modulation, maintaining, or even exaggerating, the juvenile-typical pattern of attack. These findings suggest that social experience is not needed for this developmental change to occur, and that an intact cortex is needed to regulate this change in behavior.