Insecure Attachment Research Articles

Exploring links between attachment and mental health

Attachment theory provides numerous implications for mental health and individual functioning throughout the lifespan. Attachment styles, formed based on early interactions with a caregiver, play a crucial role in emotional regulation, relational satisfaction, and psychological well-being. Childhood experiences become the foundation for the development of internal models of self, the world, and others, influencing attachment patterns in adulthood. These patterns are significant for later relationships, especially romantic ones, mental health, and the development of psychopathology. If the primary caregiver responds consistently, supports, and comforts the child, the child will be inclined to cooperate, seek closeness, and feel loved and safe. Such a child will develop a secure attachment, viewing the caregiver as a secure base and a refuge from the unpredictable world. Individuals who formed a secure attachment style in childhood tend to create stable and mature relationships, exhibit greater psychological resilience, and are less likely to struggle with mental health issues. Conversely, if the caregiver is unresponsive or lacks sensitivity, the child may develop an insecure attachment style, characterized by heightened anxiety or avoidance. Attachment-related anxiety is associated with a persistent state of heightened vigilance, as individuals remain on alert, anticipating potential separation from their parents. Avoidant attachment is marked by a tendency to maintain emotional distance, reluctance to rely on others, and a lack of seeking comfort and support from caregivers. An insecure attachment style negatively impacts romantic relationships. Moreover, individuals characterized by attachment anxiety or avoidance are more prone to mental health disorders. Attachment theory provides a crucial framework for understanding the complex links between early relational experiences and mental health. Poor relationship quality, complex PTSD, depression, personality disorders—particularly antisocial and borderline—have their roots in early maladaptive relationships between the child and caregiver and may be related to interpersonal trauma. Secure attachment acts as a protective factor against psychopathologies, promoting emotional stability and healthy social functioning.

Parental attachment and emotion regulation in children: the mediating role of working memory

ABSTRACT The present study aimed to investigate the mediating role of children's working memory levels in the relationship between attachment insecurity levels and emotion regulation skills. A total of 150 children aged 5 years, 75 girls and 75 boys, were selected by the stratified cluster sampling method and their mothers participated in the study. The data were collected using the Memory Battery for Preschool Children, Attachment Insecurity Screening Inventory, Emotion Regulation Skills Scale and Coping with Child's Negative Emotions Scale. The findings indicate that the child's level of attachment insecurity to parents is directly associated with both emotion regulation skills and working memory capacity. Additionally, the study reveals that as the working memory levels of children increase, their emotion regulation skills also increase. The final finding of the study indicates that the child's working memory levels mediate the effect of attachment insecurity on emotion regulation skills. The results of this study indicate that children with insecure attachment should be given support to improve their working memory performance, to enhance their emotional regulation skills. This suggests that even in the context of attachment insecurity, the development of emotion regulation skills can be supported by fostering working memory development.

Attachment insecurities and relational nightmares: Mentalization matters.

Attachment insecurities and relational nightmares: Mentalization matters.

Attachment security, environmental adversity, and fast life history behavioral profiles in human adolescents.

One species-general life history (LH) principle posits that challenging childhood environments are coupled with a fast or faster LH strategy and associated behaviors, while secure and stable childhood environments foster behaviors conducive to a slow or slower LH strategy. This coupling between environments and LH strategies is based on the assumption that individuals' internal traits and states are independent of their external surroundings. In reality, individuals respond to external environmental conditions in alignment with their intrinsic vitality, encompassing both physical and mental states. The present study investigated attachment as an internal mental state, examining its role in mediating and moderating the association between external environmental adversity and fast LH strategies. A sample of 1169 adolescents (51% girls) from 9 countries was tracked over 10 years, starting from age 8. The results confirm both mediation and moderation and, for moderation, secure attachment nullified and insecure attachment maintained the environment-LH coupling. These findings suggest that attachment could act as an internal regulator, disrupting the contingent coupling between environmental adversity and a faster pace of life, consequently decelerating human LH.

Comparison of State-Trait Anxiety and Fear of Childbirth According to Attachment Styles of Pregnant Women.

Fear of childbirth (FoC) and its extreme form, tokophobia, is a clinical condition that can lead to many negative consequences, and its importance is increasingly understood. This article aims to assess the severity of FoC and anxiety levels according to different attachment styles and to investigate the relationships between these factors. A cross-sectional study was conducted in a state hospital in the largest city in Turkey. Three hundred pregnant women attending the Antenatal Outpatient Clinic were included. A sociodemographic questionnaire, Wijma Delivery Expectancy/Experience Questionnaire-version-A (W-DEQ), Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory and Adult Attachment Style Scale were administered. 8.1% of participants had tokophobia (W-DEQ sum score ≥85). FoC was significantly higher in pregnant women who had a history of pregnancy loss and past psychiatric history. For multiparous women, adverse birth outcomes were also associated with higher FoC. State and trait anxiety were positively correlated with FoC levels. Regarding the attachment patterns, pregnant women with avoidant attachment styles presented with higher levels of FoC than those with secure attachment styles. In logistic regression analysis, higher anxiety levels, adverse birth outcomes, and insecure attachment styles were found to predict severe and clinical FoC. FoC has a considerable effect on pregnant women, albeit at different clinical levels. Adverse birth outcomes, high anxiety levels, and insecure attachment styles were associated with higher FoC. Therefore, antenatal patients with adverse birth outcomes and higher anxiety levels, which are risk factors for FoC, should be carefully evaluated in terms of tokophobia and referred to mental health professionals when necessary.

Interpersonal and pet bonding: A meta-analytic review of attachment dimensions

The present meta-analytic review examined the associations and differences between interpersonal and pet attachment bonds, considering the attachment dimensions of anxiety and avoidance. The work complies with the PRISMA guidelines and was pre-registered on PROSPERO. The literature search was conducted by consulting the PubMed, PsycInfo, PsycArticles, MEDLINE, and Google Scholar databases, which yielded 12 studies. The meta-analyses showed a moderate positive association for the anxiety dimension ( r = .39) and a weak positive association for the avoidance dimension ( r = .16) between interpersonal and pet attachment. The levels for anxiety and avoidance dimensions in pet attachment were also significantly lower than those in interpersonal attachment ( p-value <.001). The findings suggest that there would be moderate correspondence between the two attachment bonds for the anxiety dimension, whereas avoidance strategies might not be fully transposed to pet attachment bonds. Compared to interpersonal attachment, pet attachment also seems to be characterised by lower levels of attachment insecurity and this could be a useful element to consider in therapeutic contexts.

Differential diagnosis of autism, attachment disorders, complex post‐traumatic stress disorder and emotionally unstable personality disorder: A Delphi study

Differential diagnosis of autism, attachment disorders, complex post‐traumatic stress disorder and emotionally unstable personality disorder: A Delphi study

Physical maltreatment, insecure attachment, and online gaming disorder among Chinese adolescents: A multi-group analysis of single and non-single child family

This study examined the effect of physical maltreatment on online gaming disorder and investigated the mediating role of insecure attachment in the aforementioned relationship. Further, multi-group analysis was conducted aiming to explore whether the pathways in the conceptual model were significantly different across the groups of adolescents from single and non-single child families. Based on a multi-stage random cluster sampling method, a total of 2001 adolescents aged 12–18 years (51.3 % boys and 48.7 % girls) was obtained from Hebei Province, China. We used Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) and multi-group analysis in SEM for data analyses.The results showed that physical abuse was directly associated with online gaming disorder (B=0.139, β = 0.107, p < 0.01, 95 % CI [0.063, 0.218]). Only anxious attachment mediated the relationship between physical abuse and online gaming disorder (B=0.069, β = 0.053, p < 0.001, 95 % CI [0.045, 0.098]), and between physical neglect and online gaming disorder (B=0.025, β = 0.029, p < 0.001, 95 % CI [0.015, 0.038]). The results of multi-group analysis suggested the significant difference in the pathway coefficients between the two groups. Significant difference was observed in the specific structural pathway between physical neglect and anxious attachment (CRD= − 2.851,p < 0.05), with the effect being stronger for adolescents from single child families (B=0.248, β = 0.279,p < 0.001, 95 % CI [0.176, 0.392]) compared with those from non-single child families (B=0.115, β = 0.137,p < 0.001, 95 % CI [0.073, 0.199]). The findings suggest the indirect influencing mechanism of insecure attachment in the relationship between physical maltreatment and online gaming disorder. The results of the multi-group analysis require future practitioners to evaluate the family conditions of siblings when intervening in online gaming disorder of adolescents.

Unveiling the hidden connections: network analysis of depressive symptoms, internet addiction, and attachment in Chinese children and adolescents

BackgroundChildren and adolescents diagnosed with major depressive disorder (MDD) often grapple with significant non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI), linked to interpersonal challenges, insecure attachment, and internet addiction. This study explores these relationships in children and adolescents using network analysis, drawing data from seven hospitals in China.ResultsThe study included 162 youths with depressive disorder and 102 healthy controls from seven hospitals. The MDD + NSSI group exhibited severe internet addiction, heightened depressive symptoms, and insecure attachment. Network analysis identified central symptoms (compulsive use) and key bridge symptoms (tolerance symptoms) in the networks related to depressive symptoms, internet addiction, and attachments. These findings suggest potential targets for intervention among children and adolescents at risk for or suffering from depression.ConclusionsThis study sheds light on the intricate relationship between NSSI, attachment issues, and internet addiction in Chinese adolescents with MDD. The network analysis pinpointed central and key bridge symptoms, offering valuable insights for targeted interventions in children and adolescents at risk for or experiencing depression and associated challenges.

The relationship between insecure attachment and nicotine dependence among users of classic cigarettes, e-cigarettes, and heated tobacco products: a moderated mediation model

BackgroundPrevious research has investigated the association between attachment styles and smoking behaviors, indicating a positive association of insecure attachment styles with nicotine dependence. However, these links were mostly explored in adolescent and student samples. Moreover, the explanatory mechanisms and the variables influencing the strength of this relationship remained understudied. In this context, the present study aims to: (1) examine the associations between attachment anxiety, avoidance, and nicotine dependence; (2) investigate the mediating role of emotion dysregulation and metacognitions about smoking; and (3) test the moderating roles of psychological capital and type of tobacco product used by the participants.MethodThis cross-sectional study was conducted on a convenience sample of 447 participants who reported smoking. The age range of participants was 18 to 64 (M = 26.76; 59.7% women). All participants have completed five questionnaires measuring nicotine dependence, adult attachment, emotion dysregulation, metacognitions about smoking, and psychological capital. They also reported the type of tobacco product commonly used: classic cigarettes, e-cigarettes, or heated tobacco products.ResultsOur findings show that the direct link between insecure attachment and nicotine dependence is rather inconsistent. However, it was mediated by the metacognitions about smoking. Psychological capital can act as a protective factor against the effects of attachment on nicotine dependence, especially for those using alternative tobacco products alongside classic cigarettes.ConclusionsThe findings highlight the possibility of developing better-tailored interventions and treatments to discourage smoking and increase smoking cessation. These should focus on eliminating the dysfunctional beliefs related to the metacognitions about smoking and on improving the levels of psychological capital. In addition, targeting attachment insecurities in early adolescence can also function as a mean to prevent smoking.

The latent transition of posttraumatic stress disorder and growth among adolescents surviving Jiuzhaigou earthquake.

Knowledge of longitudinal changes in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and posttraumatic growth (PTG) may help survivors recover better. Yet, researchers dispute the population-based typologies of PTSD and PTG as well as the temporal transition between these subpopulations across time, especially among adolescents. Thus, the transition pattern still needs further research. Besides, parent-child factors (parenting styles, parent-child cohesion, and parental attachment styles) may influence the transition, but it keeps unclear. In the study, we aimed to solve these questions. A three-wave investigation was conducted among 620 adolescents, 12 months, 21 months, and 27 months, after the Jiuzhaigou earthquake by using self-report measures on PTSD, PTG, and parent-child factors at the three time points. Finally, 339 of them finished the three-wave investigation. Latent profile analysis models showed that three heterogeneous classes of PTSD and PTG existed across time: low-affected (low-level PTSD and PTG), thriving (low-level PTSD but high-level PTG), and struggling (high-level PTSD and PTG) groups. Random intercept latent transition analysis model suggested that samples mainly stayed in the original classes across time, with three main transitional paths: from struggling group to thriving group, from thriving group to low-affected group, and from low-affected group to struggling group. Besides, the study also found that parental rejection, overprotection, and anxious attachment were the possible factors that kept the stability of the struggling group. Parent-child cohesion increased the stability of the thriving group across time. Anxious attachment may worsen PTSD among adolescents and lower the stability of low-affected groups across time. Coexisting and transitional patterns exist in PTSD and PTG across time. Wrong parenting styles and insecure attachments can exacerbate PTSD symptoms and diminish adolescents' resilience, but parent-child cohesion can facilitate their growth after trauma. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

The Relationship between Traumatic Experiences, the Prevalence of Social Anxiety and Insecure Attachment among University Students

University students face unique challenges and are considered a vulnerable population, making it crucial to understand the impact of trauma on their mental health. This study aimed to investigate the associations between traumatic experiences, the prevalence of social anxiety, and insecure attachment among MSU students. The present study adopted a quantitative research approach using the Trauma Screening Questionnaire (TSQ), the DSM-5 Severity Rating of Social Anxiety Disorder (SAD-D), moreover, for the purpose of assessing PTSD, the Vulnerable Attachment Styles Questionnaire (VASQ), Social Anxiety Disorder Severity, and Insecure Attachment, respectively. A total of 406 respondents participated in the research. Through descriptive analysis, data were collected using three different assessments, revealing that 67% of the students were identified as having a high risk of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), while 6.9% experienced severe social anxiety, which was relatively low compared to the total number. Additionally, 87% of the students displayed a high level of insecure attachment. In order to test the research hypotheses, Pearson correlation analysis, linear regression analysis and path analysis were conducted in this study. The study's findings demonstrated that there was a significant correlation between traumatic experiences and insecure attachment and a non-significant correlation between traumatic experiences and social anxiety. Additionally, traumatic experiences had a significant positive effect on insecure attachment but did not significantly affect social anxiety. Lastly, traumatic experiences did not significantly affect insecure attachment through social anxiety or traumatic experiences through social anxiety.

Clarifying the relationship between insecure attachment and problematic social media use across platforms: a network analysis.

Despite evidence suggesting that insecure attachment is a significant risk factor for Problematic Social Media Use (PSMU), there remains a lack of comprehensive studies exploring this relationship, and a unified understanding of its role has yet to be established. We employed network analysis to construct an integrated model for examining the complex interrelations between negative emotions, trait and state attachment, motives, and PSMU across three platforms (i.e., WeChat, Sina Weibo, and TikTok), as well as for identifying potential mediating variables between attachment and PSMU. Data were collected from 685 young adults via online self-reported questionnaires. We found that negative emotions are positively correlated with insecure trait and state attachment but have a negligible direct relationship with PSMU. The conformity motive and state attachment security emerged as important central nodes when measured by strength, closeness, and betweenness. Moreover, attachment states and motives were found to be clustered. Such strong interrelationships were also evident between insecure attachment and PSMU, while trait attachment anxiety and avoidance were observed to be related to PSMU across various platforms. Our findings promote a deeper understanding of the relationship between insecure attachment and PSMU from a cross-platform perspective and offer novel insights into the mechanisms underlying their co-occurrence, which may guide the development of effective interventions for healthier social media engagement.

Dyadic effects of attachment styles on marital satisfaction among Chinese couples: The mediating role of perceived partner responsiveness

Insecure attachment styles, widely recognized as negative predictors in most Western samples, have been found to impair marital satisfaction for individuals high in attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance. However, Chinese culture is more tolerant of some features of attachment avoidance, which may lead to different implications of attachment styles for marital relationships. Besides, considering that responses of the partner play a vital role in the interaction of intimate relationships, the current study examined how attachment styles affect marital satisfaction through perceived partner responsiveness (PPR). This study is based on dyadic data from 668 Chinese couples across six marital stages, whose average length of marriage was 15.22 years (ranging from 0.03 to 67.57 years, SD = 13.88). Using the actor-partner interdependence model (APIMeM) to analyze these data, results suggested that: (a) individuals’ attachment anxiety was negatively associated with marital satisfaction for both themselves and their partner, and these associations were partially mediated by PPR; (b) PPR was a full mediator of the positive association between individuals' attachment avoidance and their own marital satisfaction; (c) wives’ PPR fully mediated the positive association between their attachment avoidance and their partner’s marital satisfaction, whereas husbands’ PPR partially mediated the positive association between their attachment avoidance and their partner’s marital satisfaction. These findings differ from previous studies based on Western samples and advance our understanding of how attachment styles are related to PPR and marital satisfaction in Chinese context, providing practical guidance on marital interactions for people with insecure attachment styles.

Filial piety belief profiles among Chinese couples: Associations with relationship satisfaction and insecure attachment

AbstractThe present study examined the heterogeneity of Chinese romantic couples' filial piety belief patterns. In addition, we investigated how the configuration of filial piety belief profiles within couples can link to individuals' perceptions of romantic relationship satisfaction and different attachment tendencies. We recruited 297 dyads of Chinese couples currently in heterosexual romantic relationships in the university. The couples completed self‐reported measures of dual filial piety beliefs (reciprocal and authoritarian filial piety), romantic relationship satisfaction, and insecure attachment (attachment anxiety and avoidance). We used latent profile analysis (LPA) to identify couples' dual filial piety belief interaction profiles. Four‐couple profiles emerged: (1) authoritarian couples, (2) balanced couples (while men with slightly higher reciprocal filial piety), (3) balanced couples (while men with lower reciprocal filial piety), and (4) divergent couples (balanced men and non‐filial women). The couples in the four profiles did not show significant differences in their romantic relationship satisfaction, but their attachment styles differed. (1) authoritarian couples experienced the highest levels of attachment anxiety and avoidance; (2) balanced couples experienced relatively lower levels of attachment anxiety and avoidance; and (3) non‐filial women in divergent couple profiles experienced significantly higher levels of attachment avoidance. This was the first study to uncover the possible associations between Chinese young couples' dual filial piety interaction profiles, and their dyadic relationship satisfaction and insecure attachment by adopting the person‐centered approach. We further discussed the theoretical and practical implications of the findings.

Reflective functioning mediates the relationship between insecure adult attachment and the severity of prolonged grief symptoms.

This study aimed to investigate the mediation role of reflective functioning (i.e., certainty and uncertainty about mental states) in the relationship between insecure attachment (i.e., attachment avoidance and attachment anxiety ) and the severity of prolonged grief symptoms. A cross-sectional study was conducted with 329 bereaved participants (51.7% females, mean age= 46.94 ± 14.62 years). Participants completed the Prolonged Grief Scale (PG-13), the Attachment Style Questionnaire (ASQ), and the Reflective Functioning Questionnaire (RFQ). Demographic and bereavement-related information were also collected. Certainty about mental states fully mediated the relationship between both the attachment avoidance and attachement anxiety and severity of prolonged grief symptoms. The findings of this study indicate that reflective functioning impairment, specifically certainty about mental states of self and others, mediate the paths from insecure attachment to prolonged grief symptoms. This suggests that improving reflective functioning may contribute to the treatment bereaved individuals at risk of PGD.

Role of Parenting Status in the Relationship Between Maternal Depression and Infant–Mother Attachment: A Longitudinal Cohort Study in China

ABSTRACTThis study in China aimed to explore the impact of maternal depression on infant–mother attachment and whether parenting status moderated this relationship. Women underwent depression assessments at seven perinatal time points: ≤12, 17, 21, 31, and 37 weeks of pregnancy, as well as 1 and 6 weeks postpartum. Those completing at least three times assessments, along with their infants, were invited for infant–mother attachment assessment at 12–18 months postpartum. Among 233 infant–mother pairs completing the infant–mother attachment assessment, 62 and 80 mothers had postnatal depression and perinatal major depression, respectively; 75 (32.2%) of infants exhibited insecure attachment. While infants whose mothers had maternal depression showed a slightly elevated rate of insecure attachment, this difference did not achieve statistical significance. Additionally, parenting status did not influence the relationship between maternal depression and infant–mother attachment. Nevertheless, the study hinted that more physical contact between mother and infant might reduce insecure attachment likelihood. Future research should expand sample sizes and assessment points for better understanding. In addition, encouraging close interaction and physical touch between mother and infant may be beneficial.

Attachment Styles in Romantic Relationships and Perceived Support in Postpartum Couples

The transition to parenthood is a significant life event that presents various challenges. Adequate support for both parents is crucial, as insufficient support can lead to negative outcomes. While insecure attachment has been identified as a risk factor during this period, there is limited research on how dyadic attachment styles influence perceptions of received support. This study investigates the relationship between momentary perceptions of support matching and attachment styles among parental dyads using the experience sampling method (ESM) to reduce retrospective bias. For seven days, 40 mothers of infants aged 3-12 months completed daily self-report measures relating to desired and received support from their romantic partner. Multilevel analyses revealed that securely attached mothers perceived greater support matching compared to those with insecure attachment styles. The attachment style of the support provider (father) did not significantly affect the mother’s perceptions of support adequacy. These findings highlight the importance of attachment security in shaping support perceptions and suggest that attachment-based interventions could improve support experiences for new parents. Future research should explore the nuances of attachment pairings and their impact on support dynamics within couples. Interventions following childbirth should focus on improving maternal attachment security to enhance support matching and well-being for new parents. Keywords: attachment style, romantic attachment, postpartum, support

Attachment and body representations in adolescents with personality disorder.

Attachment theory has served as an influential framework for understanding psychopathology, partly due to reliable assessment methodology. The influence of insecure attachment on attitudes towardthe body and the impact this might have for the development of psychopathology is however less well elucidated. A total of 123 adolescents (35 with borderline personality disorder or BPD, 25 with other personality disorders [OPD]and 63 comprising a normative control group) were interviewed with the Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) and the Mirror Interview (MI). The MI questions respondents about how they feel about their bodies, as they look in the mirror. The AAIs from the Borderline group were predominantly insecure-preoccupied and unresolved. These adolescents had significantly lower levels of a positive and integrated sense of self and body than the other groups. Regression results revealed a high loving relationship with fathers, low involving anger with father, high coherence of mind, slight derogation of mother &low levels of unresolved loss uniquely and additively predicted 55% of variance in the summary score assigned to MIresponses, that is,the summary score for a Positive and Integrated Body Representation (PIBR). Unfavorable attachment experiences and current states of mind regarding attachment may give rise to problems with establishing PIBRs, and thus play a role in the development of psychopathology, especially BPD.

Family Attachment and Its Influence on Adult Resilience: A Cross-Sectional Ex Post Facto Investigation

This study examines the relationship between early family attachment and resilience in adulthood, yielding significant theoretical implications for extending attachment theory. The regression analysis demonstrates that anxious and avoidant attachment styles are significant negative predictors of resilience, collectively accounting for 99.9% of its variability. The model exhibits excellent fit and high significance, as evidenced by the F-value. Secure attachment shows the highest positive association with resilience (B = 29.94), while avoidant (B = -5.937) and anxious (B = -23.937) attachment styles are negatively associated with resilience. The theoretical implications highlight the importance of considering attachment theory in the context of adult resilience and suggest avenues for future research to explore interventions that can mitigate the negative effects of insecure attachment styles. Therefore, this study concludes that enhancing secure attachment in early family relationships may be a key strategy in promoting resilience in adulthood, offering valuable insights for both clinical practice and educational interventions.