Atomization Model Research Articles

The significance of evapouration heat and mass transfer through a spray sheet with two-phase transitional momentum transport and vapour dispersion

Until now, there has been a lack of two-phase velocity and vapor investigations under the evapouration condition. Therefore, this work addresses this title in order to be additive to this subject. The spray droplets are modelled using the moments method, and the gas phase is modelled using the Eulerian approach. The spray drag, breakup, and evaporation sub-models are taken into account. Based on the RANS turbulence model for the carrier gas phase and a calibrated atomisation model for the dispersed droplets, turbulence closure is accomplished. The spray tip penetration is evaluated and compared with experimental data. The fuel vapour mass fraction is calculated by using a transport equation for the droplet-gas interaction. The distribution of the fuel vapour mass fraction is compared with the KIVA code. Fortunately, there are no experimental results for the spray or gas velocity to be compared with. All presented results are investigated by their variation with positions and time to give the total behavior. The fuel vapour mass fraction distribution exhibits a bell-shaped behaviour. In close proximity to the injector, the evaporation rate is significantly higher. There was no significant increase in the evaporation rate of the pressure swirl nozzle as the distance from the injector increased. During the evapouration of spray droplets, higher fuel vapour concentrations are present at the core spray than at the peripheral edge. The droplet velocities in the outer edge’s axial and radial directions display a reduced magnitude. The droplet’s diameter is greater at the inner edge than at the outer edge. The comparisons showed that there was good agreement with both the experimental and numerical results.

Numerical modeling of the impact of a large scale waterfall on a solid plate

Recent hydroelectric power plant safety developments have necessitated detailed studies on dam spillway operations, especially during emergency water discharge scenarios such as overtopping. This paper presents a numerical investigation of a 10-meter high waterfall impinging on a solid plate using two-phase flow models. Our approach integrates a coupled Eulerian–Lagrangian Spray Atomization (ELSA) model with an Interface Capturing Method (ICM) to simulate the complex multiphase flow and atomization processes. Our model proficiently mapped the velocity and turbulence within the pre-impact region. To refine the accuracy of the impact pressures, we isolated this zone and implemented the Injection–Reinjection strategy, a novel numerical procedure for this type of configuration. The study reveals significant insights into the dynamic interactions of water packets with the dam structure, highlighting critical impact pressures that can influence dam stability and integrity. Our results, compared against experimental data, demonstrate the effectiveness of the modeling strategies in predicting the fluid behaviors and the subsequent pressures exerted on structural components.

An Improved Comprehensive Atomization Model for Pressure Swirl Atomizers

This study presents an improved comprehensive atomization model for a pressure swirl atomizer. The model integrates internal flow predictions, linear instability analysis of a swirling annular liquid sheet, primary atomization sub-model, and droplet velocity sub-model. Measurement data combined with the inviscid theory model predict the internal flow, providing liquid sheet velocity and thickness at the atomizer outlet. The dispersion relation of surface disturbances is obtained through linear instability analysis. A primary breakup predictive model for particle size distribution is constructed based on the wavelength and growth rate within the full unstable wavenumber range of the dispersion relation. Assuming uniform circumferential distribution and a normal distribution of spray angles, the droplet velocity is assigned according to the liquid sheet velocity. The model is implemented into Eulerian–Lagrangian simulations as initial conditions for discrete phase droplets to simulate the spray field. Results show the model can accurately predict the Sauter mean diameter with an error of less than 6% and effectively predicts the spray structure and spray cone angle. The dependency of the model on its parameters is also studied, determining that the values of the ligament constant and dispersion angle have an obvious impact on the prediction of Sauter mean diameter and spray structure.

Effect of Kerosene Dual-Jet Spacing on the Mixing and Combustion Characteristics of a Scramjet Combustor.

As the core of a hypersonic propulsion system, the effective mixing efficiency of fuel and air in a supersonic combustor is crucial for its performance. This study focuses on a cold supersonic flow and employs computational fluid dynamics (CFD) techniques combined with Euler-Lagrange method's discrete-phase model (DPM) for multiphase flows, K-H and R-T (Kelvin-Helmholtz and Rayleigh-Taylor) mixing and atomization models, turbulence models, and surface evaporation models to investigate the injection, atomization, and mixing characteristics of kerosene in supersonic airflow. In order to enhance the mixing efficiency between kerosene and air while reducing flow losses, this study examines a staggered dual-jet injection scheme, with the dual jets arranged at the center of the cavity and having a dual-jet spacing of 10 and 20 mm, respectively. Starting from the interaction mechanism between jets, the impact of different staggered dual-jet spacings on the kerosene jet penetration height, span expansion area, angle of the shock wave, and Sauter mean diameter distribution was analyzed. The results show that a short dual-jet spacing (10 mm) leads to greater penetration height, wider span expansion, and a larger angle of the shock wave. When the dual-jet spacing is shorter, the interaction between the fuel jet and the cavity shear layer is stronger, resulting in an improved fuel mixing efficiency. The achievements of this study are consistent with previous experimental measurements and the literature, demonstrating a strong theoretical foundation for optimizing the design of hypersonic engines by deepening the understanding of the fundamental atomization mechanisms of kerosene jets in cold-state supersonic flows. Moreover, these results hold practical significance in improving the efficiency of kerosene combustion and enhancing the performance of flame stabilization devices.

Application of KH-RT model in lifting flame of methanol jet atomization

Abstract For the methanol jet atomization in a co-flow gas lifting flame, the self-developed WAVE model and KH-RT model were employed using the Saturne program to simulate the primary breakup of the jet column and the atomization of spray particles. Additionally, the unsteady flamelet model was utilized to simulate the combustion process. Comparing the calculated flame lifting height, droplet diameter distribution, and velocity distribution with experimental results demonstrates the atomization model’s ability to accurately capture the methanol fuel atomization process. This comparison verifies the reliability of both the atomization and combustion models, indicating their high accuracy. The study shows that upon injection from the nozzle, methanol fuel rapidly diffused, creating a cone-shaped spray structure. The high concentration of OH radicals is located close to the boundary between the regions of OH radical distribution and methanol distribution, gradually spreading downstream of the methanol jet. Furthermore, an increase in fuel flow rate resulted in a reduction in the flame’s lift height.

Improved semi-theoretical correlation to predict the Sauter mean diameter of swirl cups

The spray downstream of swirl cups involves complex two-phase flow. Comprehensively, understanding the flow physics of the spray to accurately predict the characteristics of the swirl spray is crucial for developing next-generation low-emission gas turbine combustors. The Sauter mean diameter (SMD) of the spray is an important design parameter in a gas turbine combustor, and the semi-theoretical method is among the most widely used approaches for predicting the SMD of atomizers. Of the available semi-theoretical models for predicting the SMD of prefilming-type atomizers, Shin's phenomenological three-step atomization (PTSA) model is a physics-based correlation. The PTSA model comprises three submodels: those of the pressure-swirl spray, impingement and film formation, and aerodynamic breakup. Based on similar physical mechanisms, the PTSA model can effectively predict the SMD for the spray shear layer of swirl cups. In this study, a new model, called the PTSA-V model, is proposed by introducing the viscosity of the liquid to the three submodels of PTSA. Additionally, the submodel of impingement and film formation was reconstructed, using a simplified model of a round water jet impinging on a cylindrical wall to predict the thickness of the liquid film on the Venturi surface. Experiments were carried out on a swirl cup under different pressures and temperatures of fuel as well as varying pressure drops in the air by using a two-component phase Doppler particle analyzer. The resulting uncertainty in predictions of the PTSA-V model was lower than ±7.4% under the 26 operating conditions considered here, compared with an uncertainty of ±20% in the outcomes of PTSA. Uncertainty in predictions of PTSA-V was lower than ±15% when it was applied to SMD data downstream of the swirl cup from the literature.

Multi-Scale methodology of breakup and atomization for liquid jets in crossflow

Liquid jets in crossflow represent a highly complex phenomenon, characterized by intricate interactions across multiple temporal and spatial scales spanning orders of magnitude. To better understand the atomization mechanisms and characteristics of liquid jets in crossflow, a hybrid multi-scale methodology, integrating volume of fluid and discrete phase models with an enhanced coupling algorithm based on Large Eddy Simulation, has been developed and implemented as a multiphase solver in OpenFOAM. This methodology enables the comprehensive reproduction of the atomization process, including primary breakup and secondary atomization, obviating the requirement for complex tunable atomization models. For further reducing computational costs, a parallel acceleration technology is proposed by integrating the adaptive mesh refinement with dynamic load balancing into the solver. The multi-scale methodology is validated against experimental data regarding the trajectory of the liquid jet, as well as the distribution of droplet sizes and velocities. The validated methodology is then used to predict the behavior of Jet-A in crossflow. Simulation results demonstrate that, under the multi-mode breakup regime, large droplets are formed through the deformation of ligaments, small droplets are stripped from threads, and even smaller droplets are generated after secondary breakup. In contrast, in the shear breakup mode, large droplets are directly squeezed from the sides of the liquid column, while smaller droplets are stripped from ligaments and threads. Additionally, compared to the multi-mode breakup, droplet diameters are smaller in the downstream field for the shear breakup mode.

Modeling of primary breakup considering turbulent nozzle flow, internal turbulence and surface instability of liquid jet using turbulence decay theory

In heat engines utilizing fuel injection, the processes of atomization and spray formation have a significant impact on the combustion process, thereby determining both efficiency and emission characteristics. Accurate prediction and control of spray formation in fuel injection systems play a key role in improving the efficiency and environmental performance of thermal engines, especially with the emergence of carbon-neutral fuels. To achieve accurate prediction of spray mixture formation, it is imperative to refine the atomization model for the liquid jet within numerical simulations. This requires a phenomenological representation of the atomization process that avoids reliance on computational constants obtained from spray experimental results. Consequently, the present study attempts to mathematically model the turbulent nozzle flow and liquid jet atomization process, leading to the development of a novel primary breakup model. The construction of the primary breakup model involves an analysis of the turbulence at the nozzle inlet. By merging this turbulence with the turbulence resulting from wall shear flow within the nozzle, the model provides insight into the internal turbulence and surface instability of the liquid jet, encompassing the turbulence spectrum. Consequently, the influence of nozzle length on the turbulent flow within the nozzle can be understood, and the droplet formation characteristics of the liquid jet can be predicted along with its multi-wavelength dispersion characteristics. The model effectively captures the experimental results in terms of breakup length and droplet dispersion characteristics, thus adding a higher level of accuracy to numerical simulations. Ultimately, the in-depth study of this model, coupled with its comparison with experimental results, enhances the understanding of the liquid jet atomization process.

Numerical simulation of spray atomization in crossflow using an empirical primary atomization model

The hybrid Eulerian-Lagrangian approach is used to simulate the atomization process of spray jet in subsonic crossflow. A coupled Volume of Fluid (VOF) - Lagrangian Particle Tracking (LPT) solver is implemented in the open-source platform OpenFOAM to solve the governing equations for the continuous and discrete phase respectively. An empirical model for primary atomization is proposed, in which the aerodynamic effect is taken into account, along with the turbulence effect. Thus, it is suitable for the flow at a low liquid-gas density ratio, i.e., less than 500. The performance of the presented model is evaluated and verified by comparisons of the simulated results with the experimental data. The flow characteristics of flow fields and distribution of droplet diameters are analyzed in detail. It is revealed that the vortex structures have a direct impact on the distribution of the droplets. The effects of the empirical constants in the atomization model are also examined. Finally, it is shown that the model performs better for the flow at a higher Weber number, in which the aerodynamic effect is more significant.

Validation and Assessment of a Hybrid VOF-Lagrangian Numerical Methodology for Turbulent Liquid Fuel Jets in High-Speed Crossflow

Abstract For gas turbine combustors, injecting liquid fuel in crossflow can achieve superior mixing characteristics to improve performance and reduce emissions. Robust numerical design tools are needed to accelerate the development of low-emissions technologies. Atomization modeling is often facilitated by using the Lagrangian approach rather than the more complex and computationally expensive Volume-of-Fluid (VOF) approach. However, most Lagrangian breakup models rely on empirical constants that must be fully calibrated for jets in crossflow and representative conditions. A hybrid approach could deliver a better compromise between accuracy and computational cost. This study proposes and validates a novel numerical methodology for coupling the VOF and Lagrangian approaches using a stochastic breakup model with Adaptive Mesh Refinements for turbulent liquid fuel jets in crossflow under more representative gas turbine conditions. The predictions were validated in the near and far-field regions using datasets at high pressures (1–8 bar), Weber numbers (720–1172), and momentum flux ratios (6–33). The predictive capabilities and computational cost were also compared to the Lagrangian approach coupled with large eddy simulations (LES) and with the unsteady Reynolds-Averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) methodology previously developed and validated by the authors. The effect of different VOF-Lagrangian transition criteria on the computational cost was also assessed and recommendations were provided for further improvements. The overall LES predictions were significantly improved by the proposed hybrid methodology. Although it tends to underpredict the spray trajectory and Sauter Mean Diameter compared to the URANS methodology, it better captures the diameter in the wake region and the droplet velocities.

Kinetics of sterilization of atomized slightly acidic electrolyzed water on tableware

The aim of this study was to elucidate the kinetics of atomization of slightly acidic electrolyzed water (SAEW) for use in sterilization of secondary contaminated tableware surfaces. The sterilization efficacy of SAEW was assessed on the basis of the change in the total number of colonies with different contamination levels (101 CFU/mL and 102 CFU/mL), atomization time (10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 s), atomizing distance (5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30 cm), and available chlorine concentration (ACC; 25.2, 30.2, 34.9, 40.5, 44.8, and 53.3 mg/L) as the main influencing factors. According to the relationship among flux, atomization area, and time, a kinetic model of SAEW atomization for the sterilization of tableware surfaces was established. The results indicated that the sterilization efficacy of SAEW gradually improved with decreased contamination levels (12.69 %–15.74 %), extended atomization time (13.68 %–46.58 %), and increased ACC (36.89 %–95.14 %). Based on the kinetics analysis, the change law of the kinetic model of SAEW atomization and sterilization of tableware surfaces with secondary pollution was found to be consistent with the change law of sterilization (r2 > 0.8). The results of this study provide a theoretical basis for SAEW atomization for sterilization of secondary contaminated tableware surfaces and also contributes to the improvement of technological theory of SAEW sterilization.

A spray painting simulation using high-speed rotary Atomizer—Model development and comparison of LES and RANS—

This study performed a spray-painting simulation based on the Large Eddy Simulation (LES) and Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) for spray painting using a rotary atomizer. The LES better reproduced the flow field and spray dispersion between the bell and target than the RANS. Also, the region called “over-spray” in the radially outside of the bell, in which the droplets stay, was formed, and the residence time became longer for droplets with larger diameter regardless of numerical methods for turbulent flow. Further, the transfer efficiency (TE) in the RANS was almost constant, independent of droplet diameter because all the eddy was modeled in the RANS, and the turbulent fluctuation a droplet received near the target was isotropic. In contrast, the TE in the LES varied depending on droplet diameter and showed the maximum value because only small eddies are modeled in the LES, and the turbulent fluctuation was more realistic.

A Review of Cavitation Phenomenon and Its Influence on the Spray Atomization in Diesel Injector Nozzles

<div>In view of the combustion efficiency and emission performance, various new clean combustion modes put forward higher requirements for the performance of the fuel injection system, and the cavitating two-phase flow characteristics in the injector nozzle have a significant impact on the spray atomization and combustion performance. This article comprehensively discusses and summarizes the factors that affect cavitation and the effectiveness of cavitation, and presents the research status and existent problems under each factor. Among them, viscosity factors are a hot research topic that researchers are passionate about, and physical properties factors still have the value of further in-depth research. However, the importance of material surface factors ranks last since the nozzle material was determined. Establishing a more comprehensive cavitation–atomization model considering various factors is the focus of research on cavitation phenomena. The improved model can ultimately serve high combustion efficiency and great emission performance.</div>

The effect of oil-in-water emulsion pesticide on the evolution of liquid sheet rim disintegration and the spraying distribution

Oil-based emulsions often used as agricultural chemical formulations to control pests and weeds. The instability of emulsion spray is an important challenge. In this work, the effects of liquid sheet rim disintegration on spray angle and spraying distribution were studied by visualization method. The results show that the addition of emulsion change the way of rim disintegration and this change may be responsible for the improvement of spray angle and spraying distribution uniformity compared with water spray. In emulsion spray, the typical feature of rim disintegration is the asymmetric “half-moon” shaped holes, which leads to earlier disintegration at the edge of the liquid sheet. The hole coalescence at the rim of liquid sheet may be the reason for the increase of spray angle, because it divides the liquid sheet into small liquid masses and breaks the inward contraction trend of the cohesive attraction of liquid mass. Only 0.02% addition of emulsion, the spray angle could be increased by 8°, the typical liquid sheet breakup length (typical length) and the liquid sheet rim breakup length (rim length) from 23.297 mm to 18.609 mm reduce to 16.3 mm and 9.099 mm, and the spraying distribution curve become more uniform. In addition, the effects of spray structure on spraying distribution characteristics under different concentrations and spray pressures are also discussed. This study could provide a reference for the optimal use of pesticide formulations in the field, the reduction of pesticide waste and environmental pollution, and the establishment of atomization and fragmentation models.

A mixed primary atomization model with quantification of aerodynamic, turbulence and cavitation effects

Spray atomization has a key impact on the combustion and emission performances of the engines. It involves a highly dynamic two-phase flow process consisting of two distinct stages: primary and secondary breakup. Due to their distinct physical characteristics, it is essential to model these processes separately using different numerical approaches within the spray breakup model. This study focuses on investigating the collective influence of aerodynamic force, cavitation, and turbulent fluctuations on primary breakup. To enhance the accuracy of spray simulations, a mixed primary atomization (MPA) model is proposed by integrating the Wu-Faeth theory along with the classical KH-RT model and the Sarre cavitation model. By comparing simulation results of both macroscopic and microscopic spray characteristics with experimental data under various conditions, the efficacy of the developed MPA model is validated. The sensitivity analyses of specific model parameters and the examination of the contribution ratios of different sub-models under various conditions enhance our understanding of the model calibration. Additionally, considering the complexity of near-nozzle sprays influenced by turbulent flows, cavitation, and interactions with the surrounding gas, a comparative analysis of the classical KH-RT model and the MPA model is conducted based on simulation results, specifically focusing on near-nozzle spray characteristics.

Multiscale numerical modeling of a complete spray evolution including breakup of liquid jet injection in gaseous cross flow

A direct coupling of the Volume of Fluid method (VOF) and the Lagrangian Particle Tracking (LPT) technique within a Large Eddy Simulation (LES) framework is revisited and assessed by numerically investigating a liquid jet injection into a cross-flowing air (JICF). To close the subgrid scale (SGS) terms appropriate SGS models are considered. In particular, an interfacial SGS term is included into the VOF scalar transport equation in order to achieve a suitable LES and to describe properly the liquid column and the break-up processes (primary and secondary). The dilute spray region including the droplets resulting from the secondary breakup is solved using the LPT approach. Since the latter allows the cell size to be multiple times larger than the droplet diameter, this reduces the computational expenses significantly making it possible to handle the simulation of the whole spray evolution including the complete liquid atomization without complex tunable atomization models. For this purpose, two operating conditions of a JICF existing in the literature are considered. The achieved results are first presented in terms of mesh sensitivity, required computational costs and impact of the interfacial SGS term. Next, comparisons between pure VOF/LES and VOF/LPT/LES for both qualitative features and quantitative properties are provided and discussed. In overall, a good agreement with experiments for the quantitative properties is reported. It is especially found that both the Rosin–Rammler and Gaussian distributions offer nearly a more accurate fit to the particle size distribution except for the range from 0 to 10 μm. Together with the detailed characteristics of vortices evolving and an extended breakup regime map, the spray characteristics including the spray structure are well captured. Finally, even though the interfacial SGS term has an evident influence on the jet and atomization dynamics, its impact on quantitative properties is not so prominent under these operating conditions.

A physics-driven Σ-Y atomization model for heavy-duty engine simulations

The atomization of a liquid jet is a multi-scale and multi-physics problem of interest for many engineering applications. Particularly, it drives the fuel-oxidizer mixing and dictates the efficiency of combustion engines. High-fidelity multi-phase simulations remain challenging due to the excessive computational cost required to capture all the atomization scales. Thus, atomization models are necessary to represent sub-grid liquid structures. In this work, a modified Σ-Y model in the context of Eulerian-Lagrangian Spray Atomization (ELSA) is used to transport the surface area density of the spray. The model's predictive performance is assessed under various operating conditions relevant to heavy-duty engines using the Engine Combustion Network (ECN) Spray C and Spray D research-grade injectors. The classic droplet collision formulation of the Σ-Y model alone does not replicate the response of the measured spray surface area to changes in injector, ambient pressure, and injection pressure, requiring individual tuning of the model's parameters. Instead, a transition between dense and dilute spray breakup mechanisms is proposed in terms of the average droplet spacing. The collision breakup mechanism represents the dilute spray, whereas the droplet size in the dense spray is driven by a competition between the integral scale of turbulence and the balance between the turbulent kinetic energy and the surface energy of the droplets. Such an approach minimizes the requirements for model tuning. Moreover, the role of the constants of a compressible standard k-ε RANS model is assessed in the injector's internal flow and external spray simulation framework, and an updated set is proposed. The results are validated against x-ray radiography and Ultra-Small Angle X-ray Scattering (USAXS) data and highlight the predictive capabilities of the proposed physics-driven Σ-Y model, which is compatible with engine simulation turnaround times.

Lagrangian Simulation Methodology for Large-Eddy Simulations of Prefilming Air-Blast Injectors

A Lagrangian framework is proposed to address liquid film and atomization modeling in large-eddy simulations (LESs) of aeronautical air-blast injectors. The Lagrangian liquid film model of O’Rourke and Amsden (“A Spray/Wall Interaction Submodel for the KIVA-3 Wall Film Model,” SAE International TP 2000-01-0271, Warrendale, PA, 2000) is improved by introducing a subgrid contact angle to better predict the film height and the resulting film dynamics. Next, the phenomenological the primary atomization model for prefilming air-blast injectors (PAMELA) proposed by Chaussonnet et al. (“A New Phenomenological Model to Predict Drop Size Distribution in Large-Eddy Simulations of Airblast Atomizers,” International Journal of Multiphase Flow, Vol. 80, April 2016, pp. 29–42) for primary atomization at the prefilmer edge is enhanced to deal with complex geometries. This model is able to predict the droplet-size probability density function from the prefilmer height and flow conditions. The original formulation relied on correlations valid for flat plates to determine the gas boundary-layer thickness, and it required a gas velocity at film height to be set by the user. These two points make its use difficult for complex configurations where there is no simple correlation for the gas boundary-layer thickness and the gas velocity at film height cannot be a priori estimated. An embedded methodology, named the automatic PAMELA, is therefore proposed in this work to automatically determine these two quantities in the simulation. For each cell of the prefilmer edge where atomization occurs, the gas boundary-layer thickness is estimated by analyzing the local velocity profile thanks to Lagrangian probes; and the gas velocity is computed from the local film height by assuming a logarithmic velocity profile. Finally, the film and primary atomization models are coupled to a secondary atomization model, and they are assessed on an industrial air-blast aeronautical injector. The average droplet velocity profiles and Sauter mean diameters are compared against experimental phase Doppler particle analyzer measurements, and they demonstrate the ability of the proposed framework to perform Lagrangian LESs of liquid injection in complex geometries.

Mechanism and Experimental Study on Electrostatic Atomization Using Needle-Shaped Electrodes

The conventional pneumatic Minimum Quantity Lubrication (MQL), when not properly designed, may have poor atomization and insufficient wetting performance, resulting in higher oil mist concentration and poor film formation ability in the cutting zone. The intervention of an external electric field can change the atomization mechanism of microdroplets and enhance the lubrication and cooling capability of MQL. However, the mechanism of the effect of jet parameters on the atomization performance of Electrostatic Minimum Quantity Lubrication (EMQL) under the synergistic effect of multiple fields has not been fully analyzed. In this paper, based on the designed needle electrode charging nozzle, the atomization medium charging and atomization mechanisms are investigated, and a mathematical model of the volume average diameter of droplets (VAD) is established. Based on multi-parameter atomization experiments, the electrode conical jet atomization model is validated and the mechanism of the influence of jet parameters on the atomization characteristics is analyzed. The results show that the VAD is negatively correlated with air pressure and electrical. The atomization performance of the droplets was improved under the applied voltage condition, which was manifested by the obvious refinement of the VAD, with a maximum reduction of 34.67%, a maximum reduction of 20% in the droplet group size distribution span (R.S.), and a different degree of reduction in the percentage concentration of fine particulate matter. In addition, the model fitted well with the experimental values, with an overall error of about 10%.

Physical models for vacuum-induced multistage atomization of high-entropy FeCoCrNiMo alloy powder for 3D printing

The atomization process of high-entropy FeCoCrNiMo alloy was tested using electrode induction gas atomization (EIGA) at different powers, pressures and rotary speeds. The modelization about the physical essence in the metal drop atomization was studied. A surface tension model, a specific surface energy model, a cooling rate model, and a solidification kinetic model of the alloy drop atomization process were built. Based on these models, the quantitative relationships between the powder particle size and process parameters during the alloy atomization were determined. Together with the results of particle size and scanning electron microscopy-based morphology of the powder obtained from EIGA under different process systems, the accuracy of the above physical models was validated.