Atmospheric Electricity Research Articles

Opinion: The importance of historical and paleoclimate aerosol radiative effects

Abstract. Estimating past aerosol radiative effects and their uncertainties is an important topic in climate science. Aerosol radiative effects propagate into large uncertainties in estimates of how present and future climate evolves with changing greenhouse gas emissions. A deeper understanding of how aerosols affected the atmospheric energy budget under past climates is hindered in part by a lack of relevant paleo-observations and in part because less attention has been paid to the problem. Because of the lack of information we do not seek here to determine the change in the radiative forcing due to aerosol changes but rather to estimate the uncertainties in those changes. Here we argue that current uncertainties from emission uncertainties (90 % confidence interval range spanning 2.8 W m−2) are just as large as model spread uncertainties (2.8 W m−2) in calculating preindustrial to present-day aerosol radiative effects. There are no estimates of radiative forcing for important aerosols such as wildfire and dust aerosols in most paleoclimate time periods. However, qualitative analysis of paleoclimate proxies suggests that changes in aerosols between different past climates are similar in magnitude to changes in aerosols between the preindustrial and present day; plus, there is the added uncertainty from the variability in aerosols and fires in the preindustrial. From the limited literature we crudely estimate a paleoclimate aerosol uncertainty for the Last Glacial Maximum relative to preindustrial of 4.8 W m−2, and we estimate the uncertainty in the aerosol feedback in the natural Earth system over the paleoclimate (Last Glacial Maximum to preindustrial) to be about 3.2 W m−2 K−1. In order to more accurately assess the uncertainty in historical aerosol radiative effects, we propose a new model intercomparison project, which would include multiple plausible emission scenarios tested across a range of state-of-the-art climate models over the historical period. These emission scenarios would then be compared to the available independent aerosol observations to constrain which are most probable. In addition, future efforts should work to characterize and constrain paleo-aerosol forcings and uncertainties. Careful propagation of aerosol uncertainties in the literature is required to ensure an accurate quantification of uncertainties in projections of future climate changes.

A Detailed Limited-Area Atmospheric Energy Cycle for Climate and Weather Studies

Lorenz’ seminal work on global atmospheric energetics improved our understanding of the general circulation. With the advent of Regional Climate Models (RCMs), it is important to have a limited-area energetic budget available that is applicable for both weather and climate, analogous to Lorenz’ global atmospheric energetics. A regional-scale energetic budget is obtained in this study by applying Reynolds decomposition rules to quadratic forms of the kinetic energy K and the available enthalpy A, to obtain time mean and time deviation contributions. According to the employed definition, the time mean energy contributions are decomposed in a component associated with the time-averaged atmospheric state and a component due to the time-averaged statistics of transient eddies; these contributions are suitable for the study of the climate over a region of interest. Energy fluctuations (the deviations of instantaneous energies from their climate value) that are appropriate for weather studies are split into quadratic and linear contributions. The sum of all the contributions returns exactly to the total primitive kinetic energy and available enthalpy equations.

Bacterial nano-factories as a tool for the biosynthesis of TiO2 nanoparticles: characterization and potential application in wastewater treatment.

The development of reliable and eco-conscious processes for nanoparticle synthesis constitutes a significant element in nanotechnology. TiO2 nanoparticles (NPs) are becoming essential due to their potential uses in dentistry, surgery, agriculture, and pharmacy. This leads to the development of various procedures for producing TiO2 NPs using various physicochemical methods. Still, the drawbacks of these conventional methods are associated with the emission of toxic chemicals into the atmosphere and high energy demands in production, hence endangering the health and the environment. Problems issued are solved by green nanotechnology, which offers tools as nano-factories by utilizing biological sources to subside the improper effects of conventional methods and produces nanoparticles through synthesis methods that are clean, safe, energy-efficient, and cost-effective. Among the biogenic sources, microbial cells such as bacteria possess intrinsic pathways of converting metallic salt to nanoparticles due to their ability to produce reductase enzymes. Also, they can offer features to products such as high dispersity and produce sustainable nanoparticles at a large scale. Biosynthesized TiO2 NPs have high oxidizing potential and a wide range of applications, specifically as photosensitizers and antimicrobial agents. This review will address bacterial nano-factories that can be utilized for the biosynthesis of TiO2 NPs, the characterization of biosynthesized nanoparticles, and their potential application in wastewater treatment.

A Categorization of the Global Fair-weather Electric Field According to Position and Weather Conditions

Atmospheric electricity is an important branch of physics, which mainly studies various electrical phenomena occurring in the atmosphere and the action process of various parameters in the atmosphere. This paper categorizes and integrates research literature based on different spaces and weather conditions. It focuses on analyzing specific regions and meteorological activities and obtains important conclusions. There is a certain correlation between atmospheric electric field and geological conditions, aerosol concentration, and atmospheric particle concentration, among other influencing factors. The significance of studying atmospheric electricity is to improve people’s understanding of the charge distribution in the atmosphere and related electrical phenomena, help people better protect the environment, improve the quality of life, and lay the foundation for future scientific and technological development. This paper helps people understand the impact of changes in atmospheric electric fields on the atmospheric environmental system and monitor air quality through the characteristics of atmospheric electric fields, thereby improving technology in related fields.

Relationship of precipitation intensity in the form of snow with atmospheric electricity and radiothermal radiation of the snow cover

Remote radiophysical methods using artificial satellites of the Earth allow to determine physical and chemical parameters of the atmosphere. For this purpose, calibration subsatellite measurements are necessary. One of the natural phenomena to be studied is precipitation in the form of snow. This paper presents the results of ground-based measurements of radio-thermal radiation of snow cover at two wavelengths 0.88 cm and 1.35 cm, as well as the results of measurements of the variation of the vertical component of the surface atmospheric electric field strength during snowfall. The measurements were made near the ice-water phase transition temperature. The research site is located in the city of Chita (Russian Federation). A strong influence of air temperature on the measured values, especially at the ice-water phase transition temperature, was found.

Atmosphere–Ocean Coupled Energy Budgets of Tropical Convective Discharge–Recharge Cycles

Abstract An energy budget combining atmospheric moist static energy (MSE) and upper ocean heat content (OHC) is used to examine the processes impacting day-to-day convective variability in the tropical Indian and western Pacific Oceans. Feedbacks arising from atmospheric and oceanic transport processes, surface fluxes, and radiation drive the cyclical amplification and decay of convection around suppressed and enhanced convective equilibrium states, referred to as shallow and deep convective discharge–recharge (D–R) cycles, respectively. The shallow convective D–R cycle is characterized by alternating enhancements of shallow cumulus and stratocumulus, often in the presence of extensive cirrus clouds. The deep convective D–R cycle is characterized by sequential increases in shallow cumulus, congestus, narrow deep precipitation, wide deep precipitation, a mix of detached anvil and altostratus and altocumulus, and once again shallow cumulus cloud types. Transitions from the shallow to deep D–R cycle are favored by a positive “column process” feedback, while discharge of convective instability and OHC by mesoscale convective systems (MCSs) contributes to transitions from the deep to shallow D–R cycle. Variability in the processes impacting MSE is comparable in magnitude to, but considerably more balanced than, variability in the processes impacting OHC. Variations in the quantity of atmosphere–ocean coupled static energy (MSE + OHC) result primarily from atmospheric and oceanic transport processes, but are mainly realized as changes in OHC. MCSs are unique in their ability to rapidly discharge both lower-tropospheric convective instability and OHC.

Moisture Recycling in the Colombian Andes

AbstractThe Colombian Andes (CA) are located over the northwestern corner of tropical South America (NW‐TropSA), where land and atmosphere interchange moisture and energy in a complex way owing to the orographic influence on the recycling of moisture over land. We aim to understand where and when water vapor evaporated from land turns into rainfall through moisture recycling, using the Water Accounting Model‐2layers (WAM‐2), an offline model to track atmospheric moisture forced with data from ERA‐5 at its native 0.25° resolution during 1980–2020. We define the spatiotemporal distribution of sources (high evaporation recycle ratios, ϵC) and receptors (high precipitation recycle ratios, ρC) of continental moisture at diverse timescales, including monthly, seasonal, annual and interannual (ENSO). Referring to the regional runs of WAM‐2 over NW‐TropSA (4°S–12°N/80°W–66°W), at elevations above 1,000 m.a.s.l., the CA has a mean annual ρC of 11% (ranging 6%–16%) and a mean annual ϵC of 35% (ranging 27%–40%). Moisture recycling in the CA exhibits a strong annual cycle over the region. The seasonal dynamic of moisture recycling shows two clear‐cut sources of moisture: the eastern foothills of the Eastern and Central ranges of the CA. Both foothills are also regions of high rainfall, although moisture recycling mechanisms differ. Sources of continental moisture grow spatially during September‐October‐November and March‐April‐May. The seasonal availability of moisture recycled coincides with regions where orography interacts with low level jets sourcing humidity. At interannual timescales, sources and receptors of continental moisture in the CA are modulated by the extreme phases of ENSO.

Renewable biomass-based aerogels: from structural design to functional regulation.

Global population growth and industrialization have exacerbated the nonrenewable energy crises and environmental issues, thereby stimulating an enormous demand for producing environmentally friendly materials. Typically, biomass-based aerogels (BAs), which are mainly composed of biomass materials, show great application prospects in various fields because of their exceptional properties such as biocompatibility, degradability, and renewability. To improve the performance of BAs to meet the usage requirements of different scenarios, a large number of innovative works in the past few decades have emphasized the importance of micro-structural design in regulating macroscopic functions. Inspired by the ubiquitous random or regularly arranged structures of materials in nature ranging from micro to meso and macro scales, constructing different microstructures often corresponds to completely different functions even with similar biomolecular compositions. This review focuses on the preparation process, design concepts, regulation methods, and the synergistic combination of chemical compositions and microstructures of BAs with different porous structures from the perspective of gel skeleton and pore structure. It not only comprehensively introduces the effect of various microstructures on the physical properties of BAs, but also analyzes their potential applications in the corresponding fields of thermal management, water treatment, atmospheric water harvesting, CO2 absorption, energy storage and conversion, electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding, biological applications, etc. Finally, we provide our perspectives regarding the challenges and future opportunities of BAs. Overall, our goal is to provide researchers with a thorough understanding of the relationship between the microstructures and properties of BAs, supported by a comprehensive analysis of the available data.

Tracing earthquakes through lake sediments for better prediction

<p>Intensive climatic extremes and frequent earthquakes, both in China and other regions, have captured public attention recently. The Tibetan Plateau at middle northern latitudes boasts large glacier and snow coverage, coupled with frequent tectonic activities, exerting profound yet poorly understood influences on zonal atmospheric motion and energy flux during interhemispheric coupling. This study proposes a comprehensive process-based approach involving multi-proxies focused on alpine lakes to illuminate the intricate interactions among tectonics, glacial processes and hydro-climatic variations. This perspective can enhance our understanding of the spatiotemporal diversity of the local-to-global hydro-climatic change pattern, particularly forced by Tibetan Plateau, and suggests to consider its combined summer thermal and tectonic forcing. Additionally, the approach provides unbiased geological data extracted from lakes, contributing to the optimization of hazard and climate models for better predictions of tectonics, abrupt and irreversible climate tipping points with confidence.</p>

Coronal Heating and Solar Wind Generation by Flux Cancellation Reconnection

In this paper, we propose that flux cancellation on small granular scales (≲1000 km) ubiquitously drives reconnection at a multitude of sites in the low solar atmosphere, contributing to chromospheric/coronal heating and the generation of the solar wind. We analyze the energy conversion in these small-scale flux cancellation events using both analytical models and three-dimensional, resistive magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) simulations. The analytical models—in combination with the latest estimates of flux cancellation rates—allow us to estimate the energy release rates due to cancellation events, which are found to be on the order 106–107 erg cm−2 s−1, sufficient to heat the chromosphere and corona of the quiet Sun and active regions, and to power the solar wind. The MHD simulations confirm the conversion of energy in reconnecting current sheets, in a geometry representing a small-scale bipole being advected toward an intergranular lane. A ribbon-like jet of heated plasma that is accelerated upward could also escape the Sun as the solar wind in an open-field configuration. We conclude that through two phases of atmospheric energy release—precancellation and cancellation—the cancellation of photospheric magnetic flux fragments and the associated magnetic reconnection may provide a substantial energy and mass flux contribution to coronal heating and solar wind generation.

Correcting for Undercounting of Lightning Flashes by Space‐Based Optical Sensors

AbstractAccurate measurements of global lightning are essential for understanding present and future atmospheric electricity, composition, and climate. The latest space‐based lightning detector, the Geostationary Lightning Mapper (GLM), was the first to be placed in geostationary orbit, with a continuous view of most of the American continents. Prior to the GLM, the Lightning Imaging Sensor (LIS) on the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) satellite collected lightning measurements from which numerous lightning climatologies have been developed, including those used in global models. However, this study finds that both the GLM and a second, similar LIS placed on the International Space Station (ISS) in 2017 detect lightning at similar rates and are undercounting lightning compared to ground‐based Lightning Mapping Arrays (LMAs). The GLM undercounts lightning by an average factor of 7.0, reaching a maximum over 120 as a function of satellite zenith angle, radar reflectivity at a height where the temperature is −10°C, flash height, and thunderstorm polarity. The LIS is estimated to undercount lightning by an average factor of 5.6, reaching a maximum of 75.0 as a function of radar reflectivity at the −10°C level, flash height, and thunderstorm polarity. Preliminary predictive equations for the GLM and LIS lightning undercount factor, or scaling factor (SF), use ice‐water content, equilibrium level, flash height, and satellite zenith angle, all of which can be derived in models. These equations are developed to encourage updating lightning parameterizations within global models and will likely increase modeled lightning's effects on atmospheric electrical circuits, composition, chemistry, and climate change.

Clinical case of lightning injury

Atmospheric electricity damage as a result of lightning strike is a relatively rare condition in intensive care medicine, however it can be accompanied by high mortality and serious complications in the majority of survived patients.The objective was to demonstrate a clinical case of lightning injury and discussion of diagnostic and treatment aspects in this condition.Materials and Methods. 18-yr old patient was delivered to hospital after lightning strike. She lost consciousness, there was no breathing for a short time, and the witnesses provided artificial respiration and external cardiac compressions. On admission, the signs of shock were present in parallel with dopamine infusion, the skin was pale-grey and cold, with traces of thermal damage according to the type of contact with metal of various localization on the neck, scalp, front surface of the chest and abdominal wall, in the groin, on the left foot. The patient was hospitalized to ICU, therapeutic and diagnostic measures were started. We revealed decompensated lactic acidosis, biochemical signs of myocardial and muscle damage. The infusion therapy, analgesics, antibiotics, proton pump inhibitors, anticoagulants were administered. During the therapy in the first 6 hours, the signs of shock were attenuated, in 4 days, the patient was transferred to traumatological department in a stable state. After the transfer from the ICU, hearing decline as well as pain and sensory disturbances in the left foot are persisting.Conclusion. An integrated approach is required in the diagnosis, treatment, and rehabilitation of patients with lightning injury.

The impacts of the European chemical industry on the planetary boundaries

The European chemical industry plays a crucial role in the economy, manufacturing thousands of products that find applications across many sectors. On the other hand, the sector is also one of the largest energy consumers, and emits significant amounts of greenhouse gases, together with toxic, bioaccumulative and persistent chemicals. Acknowledging the need for a shift towards a greener industry model, this contribution assesses the absolute sustainability level of the chemical sector by contrasting the impacts it causes with the ecological capacity of the planet, as given by the planetary boundaries framework. Results indicate that impacts incurred by the European chemical industry transgress CO2-based thresholds significantly, with burdens on atmospheric CO2 concentration, energy imbalance, and ocean acidification being 15, 16 and 6 times larger than planetary limits. The biosphere integrity boundary, assessed here based on functional diversity, is also transgressed by 3 %. The five chemicals with the highest production volume, namely ammonia, polypropylene, high-density polyethylene, styrene, and benzene, are responsible for around 50 % of impacts in all the planetary boundaries. This suggests that they should be the target of dedicated research and policies. Finally, the study assesses a set of improvement pathways for the European chemical industry to become sustainable. It is found that the deployment of carbon capture and storage technologies to compensate for the greenhouse gases emitted by the sector would allow the chemical industry to meet all the planetary boundaries concurrently, yet burden-shifting would still cause other planetary boundaries to be deteriorated. This evidences the need to employ holistic approaches to assess the wide implications of any solution adopted within or outside the chemical industry.

A comparative study of the land–atmosphere energy and water exchanges over the Tibetan Plateau and the Yangtze River Region

A comprehensive understanding of energy and water cycle characteristics in different regions is crucial for studying local land–atmosphere interactions and predicting regional weather and climate change. To explore similarities and differences in land–atmosphere energy and water exchanges between two regions—the Tibetan Plateau (TP), characterized by higher elevation and a drier climate, and the Yangtze River Region (YRR), with lower elevation and a wetter climate—this study analyzed and compared the radiation components and the turbulent heat fluxes at eight sites covering various land-cover types, including alpine desert and alpine grassland on the TP, as well as urban and grassland on the YRR. The following results were obtained: (1) Over the TP, the annual mean incoming and outgoing shortwave radiation are 251.3 and 59.6 W m−2, which are 1.70 and 2.87 times the values in the YRR, respectively. The incoming and outgoing longwave radiation are 231.5 and 338.0 W m−2, which are 0.64 and 0.83 times those in the YRR, respectively. However, the difference in net radiation is relatively small. (2) In grassland over both the TP and YRR, the latent heat fluxes have higher values of 35.0 and 38.8 W m−2, respectively, leading to a higher heating efficiency. Alpine desert has the highest sensible heat flux (SH) value of 42.1 W m−2, due to sparse vegetation and lower soil moisture, followed closely by urban land cover with an average SH value of 38.2 W m−2. These results highlight the different characteristics of land–atmosphere interaction across different land covers in different climatic contexts, laying the groundwork for future investigations of additional land–atmosphere coupling processes.摘要正确认识不同区域能量和水分循环特征是研究局地地气相互作用及准确预测区域天气, 气候变化的关键. 为了研究属于干旱/半干旱气候的青藏高原 (TP) 和湿润/半湿润气候的长江流域 (YRR) 之间地表能量和水分交换的异同, 本文对比分析了两个区域8个不同地表类型 (包括高山荒漠, 高山草地, (平原) 城市和 (平原) 草地等) 观测站点的地表辐射和能量通量数据. 结果显示: (1) TP由于高原大气层稀薄且空气洁净, 年平均入射短波辐射为251.3 W m−2, 是YRR的1.7倍. 加之高原地表反照率高导致反射辐射 (59.6 W m−2) 是YRR的2.87倍. 入射及出射的长波辐射为231.5和338.0 W m−2, 分别为YRR的0.64和0.83. 而两个区域的净辐射差异不大; (2) 草地站更多的潜热释放使得地表总加热效率高于城市和高山荒漠, TP和YRR的草地站的年平均潜热分别为35.0 和 38.8 W m−2, 而植被稀疏且土壤干燥的高山荒漠地区感热最大, 年平均感热为42.1 W m−2; 其次是城市下垫面, 其年平均感热为37.7 W m−2. 研究结果揭示了不同气候背景下典型下垫面地气相互作用特征, 为地气相互作用过程深入分析奠定了基础.

The Dust Planet Clarified Modelling Martian MY29 Atmospheric Data Using the Dynamic-Atmosphere Energy-Transport (DAET) Climate Model

The Dynamic Atmosphere Energy Transport (DAET) climate model, a mathematical model previously applied to a study of Earth’s climate, has been adapted to study the climatic features in the low-pressure, dust-prone atmosphere of the planet Mars. Using satellite data observed for Martian Year 29 (MY29), temperature profiles are presented here thatconfirm the studies of prior authors of the existence on Mars of a tropical solar-energy driven zone of daytime atmospheric warming, that both diurnally lifts the tropopause and follows the annual latitudinal cycle of the solar zenith. This tropical limb of ascending convection is dynamically linked to polar zones of descending air, the seasonal focus of which is concentrated over each respective hemisphere’s polar winter cap of continuous darkness. An analysis of the MY29 temperature data was performed to generate an annual average surface temperature metric that was then used to both inform the design of and to constrain the computation of the DAET climate model. The modelling analysis suggests that the Martian atmosphere is fully transparent to surface emitted thermal radiant energy. The role of lit hemisphere surface reflectance provides an energy boost to the dust-prone surface boundary layer at grazing-angle latitudes. This backlighting process of quenched solar energy capture ensures that the Martian climate operates as a black-body system. The high emissivity solar illuminated hemispheric surface heats the atmosphere by direct thermal conduction followed by a process of adiabatic convection across the planetary surface. It is the non-lossy process of adiabatic convection that results in the development and maintenance of a flux-enhanced atmospheric energy reservoir which accounts for the 2 Kelvin Atmospheric Thermal Effect in the Martian troposphere.

Simulation Analysis of Sensors with Different Geometry Used in Measurements of Atmospheric Electricity.

The atmospheric electric current, "air-earth current", flows between the low ionosphere and Earth's surface. The source of this current is the potential difference between the global equalizing layer called the ionosphere and the ground surface. According to Wilson's concept of the Earth's Global Electric Circuit, in the areas of so-called fair weather, based on current measurements at the Earth's surface, it is possible to conclude the global electrical processes in the ionosphere and higher layers. The theoretical basis for this inference is the law of continuity of electric current or the principle of conservation of electric charge. We present the results of simulations of the distribution of electric field lines for sensors with different geometries placed in a uniform electric field, representing the atmospheric electric field. The sensors are metal surfaces on which electric charges are induced or deposited. In the external measuring circuit to which the sensor is connected, an electric current [A] will flow, related to the air-earth current density [A/m2], but their relationship may be challenging to interpret. We analyze the impact of sensor geometry on the possibility of interpreting the atmospheric electric conduction and atmospheric displacement current based on the current measured in the external circuit. This present method can be used for the geometric construction of new sensors at the stage of determining the electrical characteristics of the sensor (e.g., effective collecting area). It can support the comprehensive design of a measurement system at the interface between an atmosphere, sensor, and electronic equipment.

Russian Studies on Atmospheric Electricity in 2019–2022

Russian Studies on Atmospheric Electricity in 2019–2022

Solar Activity, Weather, and Climate: The Elusive Connection

Abstract The search for an explanation of correlations of weather and climate with solar activity has uncovered some subtle effects of the varying solar inputs, which include irradiance, energetic particles, electric fields induced by the solar wind, and the modulation of the galactic cosmic ray flux. Relevant phenomena have been identified in stratospheric chemistry and dynamics and in aerosols, atmospheric electricity, and clouds. The effects are small and appear intermittently in statistical analyses of observations. Correlations and theory permit responses to several solar inputs effective on the decadal time scales, making it difficult to distinguish them observationally. No mechanism for tropospheric decadal change can be considered to be definitely established, but for the day-to-day time scale there is clear observational evidence for clouds responding to solar wind–induced current flow (JZ) in the global electric circuit, due to changes in ionospheric potential, and independently from Forbush decreases of the cosmic ray flux. The responses to JZ also correlate separately with ionospheric potential changes due to changes in day-to-day thunderstorm activity. The identified mechanism is for electric charge effects on in-cloud scavenging, and this implies a decadal response, in view of decadal changes in JZ. However, a complete and quantitative model of the inferred electrically induced changes in cloud microphysics is not yet available. The failures, successes, and controversies of the search illustrate the somewhat chaotic process of scientific discovery.

Basic Electrophysical Characteristics of Natural Three-Phase Dispersed System “A Storm Cloud−Earth”

The results of engineering calculation of basic electrophysical characteristics of a three-phase dispersed system of the Earth troposphere “storm cloud-earth”, in the cloud of which a bearing gaseous air phase contains fine liquid water drops and small solid dielectric particles, are present-ed. The indicated characteristics are as follows: the total electric charge qΣ concentrated in a storm cloud of a given spherical volume V0 with finely dispersed charged inclusions in the form of water droplets of the radius rw and solid dielectric particles of the radius rd with the given cor-responding average volume densities Nw and Nd, respectively; the electric potential φr in the spherical volume V0 of a storm cloud with a specified outer radius R0; the electrical energy W0 accumulated in the volume V0 of a storm cloud with finely dispersed inclusions ; and the amplitude and temporal parameters of the pulse current iL(t) of the lightning in the plasma channel of a long air spark electrical discharge from the storm cloud to the ground. It is shown that at rw ≈ rd ≈ 5 μm, Nw ≈ 108 m-3, Nd ≈ 5106 m-3, R0 ≈ 895 m and the height of the center of a spherical storm cloud (with its volume of V0 ≈ 3109 м3) H0 ≈ 3000 m above the ground level, the following numerical values (in modulus) of the sought parameters of the system under consideration could be obtained: the accumulated cloud charge of qΣ ≈ 43.8 C; the electric potential on the outer cloud surface of φR ≈ 439 MV; the electric energy of W0 ≈ 9.61 GJ; the amplitude of the lightning current of ImL ≈ 218.5 KА corresponding to the time tmL ≈ 11.1 μs. The obtained results are in a good agreement with known experimental data related to the atmospheric electricity. They will contribute to a possibility of predicting thunderstorm conditions in the Earth troposphere with the minimal initial meteorological information, the further development of the nature of the atmospheric electricity, the physics of the linear lightning and solving the problem of the lightning protection of air and ground facilities and their personnel.

Modeling the role of renewable energy to mitigate the atmospheric level of carbon dioxide along with sustainable development

In the past few decades, the use of fossil fuels has increased dramatically due to industrialization in developing nations. The elevation of carbon dioxide (CO2) has become a serious concern for the entire world. Therefore, most countries want to reduce the use of fossil fuels by transitioning to renewable energy sources. In this research work, we formulate a nonlinear mathematical model to study the interplay between atmospheric CO2, human population, and energy production through traditional energy sources (coal, oil, and gas) and renewable energy sources (solar, wind, and hydro). For the model formulation, we consider that the atmospheric level of CO2 increases due to human activities and energy production through traditional energy sources. Additionally, we consider that the dependency of the human population shifts from traditional to renewable sources of energy as the atmospheric level of CO2 increases. Through the model analysis, we have obtained a condition that implies a change in the equilibrium level of CO2 by increasing the deployment rate of renewable energy sources. This condition demonstrates that the atmospheric level of CO2 can be reversed from its current level through sufficient deployment of renewable energy sources. Moreover, for a certain critical value of the growth rate parameter of renewable energy, three interior equilibria may exist. This situation indicates the presence of hysteresis, which implies that the system may undergo discontinuous jumps between different stable steady states. Furthermore, we discuss an optimal control problem to minimize atmospheric CO2, simultaneously minimizing the cost of the considered strategy.