Athletic Opportunities Research Articles

Season Suspension and Summer Extension: Unique Opportunity for Professional Team-Sport Athletes and Support Staff During and Following the COVID-19 Crisis.

Given the emergence of the COVID-19 outbreak, the official declaration of a global pandemic by the World Health Organization, and its consequential disruptions on the professional team sports landscape, it is the main objective of this brief opinion to help ensure that professional team-sport athletes and support staff remain aware as a society of some of the potential pitfalls – illustrated via negative but plausible detrimental scenarios. Finally, new ideas are introduced and evidence-based hypotheses are presented on the following five themes: periodization, exploration, virtual (at-home) training, player monitoring, and continued education, including return-to-competition preparation strategies following these exceptional times of uncharted territory.

Player and Parent Experiences with Child and Adolescent Power Soccer Sport Participation

Power soccer presents opportunities for young athletes who use power wheelchairs to experience competitive team sports. As the focus of rehabilitation is to enhance participation and quality of life, insight into the subjective experience of sport participation could broaden considerations for power wheelchair prescription and inform how therapists share information about community sports and other activities with families. Purpose To provide insight into the experiences of power soccer players and their parents to inform rehabilitation practice. Methods Primary data for this Interpretive Description study were individual interviews with five power soccer athletes, ranging from 11 to 17 years of age, and three parents of power soccer players. Observational field notes were also used. Results Five inter-related themes were developed: 1) Level playing field, 2) I am an athlete, 3) Important “life lessons” are gained through team sports, 4) The value of belonging to a community, and 5) Role of the rehabilitation community in supporting power mobility sports. Conclusions Findings of this study demonstrate the benefits and challenges of power sport participation. The results encourage therapists to share information about sport opportunities with families and to consider a broad range of contexts when assessing for power mobility.

Interscholastic Participation for Athletes with Disabilities Revisited: Are Today's Programs Doing Enough?

The 2013 Office of Civil Rights Memo on extracurricular athletics brought attention to the idea that individuals with disabilities have a right to consistent opportunities to participate in sports programs provided by schools across the country. This article examines the key points related to participation along a continuum of opportunities by exploring what is currently happening in many states across the country to afford equal opportunities for athletes with disabilities at the interscholastic level. Recommendations follow to help program leaders continue to build on successful sport options offered in many states for athletes with disabilities.

ЕКСПЕРИМЕНТАЛЬНА ПЕРЕВІРКА ПРОГРАМИ ПІДГОТОВКИ ПАУЕРЛІФТЕРІВ З ВАДАМИ ЗОРУ НА ЕТАПІ ЗБЕРЕЖЕННЯ ВИЩОЇ СПОРТИВНОЇ МАЙСТЕРНОСТІ

Introduction. The specific focus of adaptive sports and nosological features of athletes make impossible to build the training of powerlifters with visual impairments by analogy with Olympic sports. The analysis of the available scientific knowledge the necessity of research of features of preparation of powerlifters with defects of sight of highly qualification is confirmed. It is assumed that the introduction of the author's training program in the training process of powerlifters will have a positive impact on improving the preparedness and effectiveness of competitive activities of visually impaired athletes. The aim of the study is to identify the effectiveness of the author's training program for powerlifters with visual impairments at the stage of maintaining higher sportsmanship. Research methods: analysis and generalization of data of scientific and methodical literature and information network Internet, pedagogical observation, pedagogical experiment and methods of mathematical statistics. The study involved 10 visually impaired athletes, members of the national powerlifting team. Results. As a result of the experiment it was found that the author's program of training powerlifters with visual impairments at the stage of maintaining higher sportsmanship, which is based on a differentiated approach to planning the components of exercise in exercise groups has a positive effect on fitness. The highest rates of increase in physical fitness were found in tests that determine the maximum manifestation of strength and flexibility. The introduction of the author's program had a positive impact on the performance of competitive activities of powerlifters with visual impairments. The results of athletes with visual impairments in squats, traction and the amount of triathlon in all subjects after the experiment are statistically different from those in these exercises before implementation. Conclusions. The analysis of the obtained results testifies to the high efficiency of the author's program in relation to the indicators of physical fitness and effectiveness of competitive activity of powerlifters with visual impairments. It is established that the author's program of training powerlifters with visual impairments at the stage of preserving sportsmanship allows not only to maintain a stable level of competitive performance, but also to attract reserve opportunities for athletes to maintain high sports results. Key words: power sports, blindness, training, preparedness, athlete.

Title IX: Separate but Equal for Girls and Women in Athletics

Title IX, the federal civil rights law that prohibits sex discrimination in education, is well known for transforming girls’ and women’s sports. Because the requirements it imposes on scholastic and collegiate athletics do not reflect a single, unified theory of gender equality, it has been aptly dubbed a law of “many feminisms.” Since its early history, Title IX has embraced a system of sex segregation in sports, going against the grain of civil rights statutes that mandate gender integration and formal equality in other realms. However, Title IX’s “separate but equal” regime is increasingly being challenged by feminists who argue that it has not done enough to eliminate gender disparities and inequities in sport and is fundamentally incompatible with the inclusion and fair treatment of transgender and nonbinary athletes. The first two sections of this chapter trace the history of Title IX as it has been applied to sports and present evidence of the dramatic, but unfinished and racially uneven, impact it has had on increasing athletic opportunities for women and girls. The chapter then canvasses the feminist arguments for and against sex segregation in sports and makes the case that a regime of strict sex-separation is no longer the best strategy for assuring girls’ and women’s success in sports and dislodging pernicious stereotypes of women’s inferior athleticism.

The role of elite coaches’ expertise in identifying key constraints on long jump performance: how practice task designs can enhance athlete self-regulation in competition

ABSTRACT Understanding performance behaviours provides useful information for practitioners that can assist with the design of tasks to enhance the specificity of practice. In this study, the experiential knowledge of six elite long jump coaches was investigated using a constructivist grounded theory approach, with the aim of furthering our understanding of the competitive behaviours of elite long jump athletes and how they adapt actions to the emotional and physical demands of performance environments. Findings offer a coaches’ perspective on three performance contexts which shape athlete performance – perform, respond and manage – towards two common performance intentions (maximum jump and sub-maximal jump). We contend that these findings reflect how coaches perceive performance as a series of connected events (jumps), during which athlete intentionality facilitates self-regulatory strategies in the face of unique interactions between individual, task and environmental constraints across a competition. These findings highlight how individuals must continually co-adapt with constraints in performance environments supporting how athletes self-regulate using intentionality, emotions and cognitions. Practice task designs should, therefore, provide greater opportunities for athletes to learn to self-regulate in performance contexts, with opportunities to perform, respond and manage. Interpreting the coaches’ insights, we suggest that these major performance contexts of perform, respond and manage could, therefore, be strategically used to frame representative learning designs, providing a framework for better organisation of training tasks.

Regatta Revisited: The Race for Equity in Virtual Sports

In today’s internet driven world, virtual sports tournaments where competitors from across the globe use exercise machines connected via cyber technology are becoming increasingly popular. These competitions, in which athletes can participate from afar, have the potential to increase inclusion for athletes with disabilities. However, many virtual athletic competitions currently fall short of the mandate that organizers accommodate and reward disabled athletes in ways comparable to nondisabled athletes. Specifically, disabled athletes are far too often not equitably categorized into competitive classifications according to their impairments and disabilities. This discriminatory practice affects notions of fairness for disabled athletes. This note is the first to shed light on the regulatory and legal aspects of virtual sport tournaments and aims to recommend policy to ensure equity in those competitions for disabled athletes. Almost thirty years have passed since Congress enacted the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) which recognizes that “physical and mental disabilities in no way diminish a person’s right to fully participate in all aspects of society.” The Paralympic Movement is also very clear about the importance of comparable opportunities for disabled and nondisabled athletes as essential for the inclusion of the former and for reducing disability stigma. We argue that when competition and award categories are delineated across nondisabled sports, it is imperative that opportunities are mirrored for disabled athletes.

Perspectives on Strategies to Foster Inclusion Through Sports: Advantages, Disadvantages, and Considerations for Implementation

Abstract This article presents the results of a study on the perspectives of stakeholders from mainstream and specialized sports settings on seven strategies that could boost the impact of sports on social inclusion of people with intellectual disability. These strategies are: 1) developing Unified Sports, 2) conducting activities to raise awareness, 3) providing training to coaches, 4) using shadows, 5) developing a peer-support structure, 6) having a resource person available when needed, and 7) facilitating engagement in nonplaying roles. The perspectives of 28 stakeholders regarding the advantages, disadvantages, and considerations for implementation of the different strategies were gathered in discussion groups. Findings could help diversify opportunities for athletes with intellectual disability and develop programs and policies that contribute to building inclusive communities through sports.

Elite Athlete Training in The United States of America

Objectives:The training of elite athletes is a very long and complicated process. The aim of the present study is to examine the training system of elite athletes in the U.S. Methods:Three different paths were followed to collect the information.  First, the web sites of organizations such as U.S. Olympic Committee (USOC), National Council of Youth Sports, National Collegiate Athletic Association, NCAA Eligibility Center and Oklahoma State University (OSU) which brings in leading role for sports in their respective fields were accessed and related publications comprehensive database search was conducted in EBSCO HOST Sport Discus, PubMed and Medline. Second, the sports facilities, fields and tools at Oklahoma State University and Colorado Springs Olympic Training Center (CSOTC) were examined. Finally, coaches of the OSU Athletic teams were interviewed. Results:The American college system differs from other countries because college sports in the U.S. are a big business sector; coaches usually have a scholarship budget of hundreds of thousands of dollars per year. Scholarships for athletes may range from a minimum of contributions to full scholarship covering tuition fees, housing, meals, and books. USOC maintains and operates three national Olympic Training Centers. The USOC has established 17 Olympic Training Sites in 15 states across the United States. Millions of dollars have been invested in these complexes to ensure that athletes receive the best training in the U.S. Conclusions: In the U.S., there is a systematic structure related to sports, which includes the whole education process from elementary school to the end of a college education. Education and sports are parallel. Schools are the hub of mass sports and elite athletic training. Universities offer the most ideal opportunities for athletes. Universities target and achieve not only the athletic development of the student-athlete but also the well-rounded development of their education.

Gender identity and sports medicine: inclusion and equal opportunities for athletes in competitions

Gender identity and sports medicine: inclusion and equal opportunities for athletes in competitions

‘Save the Long Skirt’: Women, Sports, and Fashion in Third Republic and Vichy France

Following the First World War, opportunities for female French athletes expanded as women organized sporting associations, competed in new sports including soccer and rugby, and founded their own athletic federation. The French feminist movement also enjoyed considerable success during the interwar period, winning greater educational, legal, and political freedoms. The concurrent rise of French women’s sport and the feminist movement encouraged scholars to create teleological links between these two liberatory trends, but scholarly wisdom that links French feminism and sports relies upon a narrative of linearity that was not apparent in the lived experience of female athletes. Sartorial discourses and practices from the 1920s through the Vichy period show that despite the increasing popularity of women’s sports, and the supposedly transgressive fashions that accompanied them, women’s athletics in France was rarely revolutionary. Sportswomen, moderate French feminists, and social conservatives all promoted women’s sports in normative ways, stressing sport’s role in helping women to succeed in their natural duties as mothers and wives. The most visually transgressive hemlines for sportswomen finally took hold during the Vichy regime when conservatives promoted shorter shorts and form fitting shirts to bolster natalist policies.

Brown, Title IX and the impact of race and sex segregation on sports participation opportunities for Black females

AbstractAlthough neither the 1954 Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas decision nor Title IX of the Education Amendments Act (1972) specifically mentions sports participation, both antidiscrimination laws have changed the landscape of high school and college sports by granting Blacks and females increased access to athletic opportunities previously reserved for Whites males. Although Brown and Title IX are popular topics among research scholars, studies rarely consider the unique experiences of Black females, who unlike Black males and White females, occupy at least two subordinate social locations due to their race and gender. This article goes beyond the usual single axis of inquiry and examines the intersection of Brown and Title IX and, thus, the intersection of race and sex for Black females who inhabit a sports world dominated by Whites and males. Using existing literature to assess the implementation and effectiveness of Brown and Title IX independently before exploring their sociohistorical linkages and integrated effect on access to sports participation opportunities, the author finds that Black women and girls have been left out of the game.

Good Initiative, Bad Judgement: The Unintended Consequences of Title IX’s Proportionality Standard on NCAA Men’s Gymnastics and the Transgender Athlete

Title IX fails to provide the tools or guidelines necessary to equalize opportunities for all student athletes in the collegiate setting despite the government’s continuous effort to explain the law. This failure is because judicial precedent has largely developed around the binary proportionality test of compliance. Title IX was originally intended to equalize educational opportunities for male and female students in order to remedy past discrimination in our society. However, the application of Title IX has frequently created fewer opportunities in athletics due to the unintended relationship between the proportionality standard and the social phenomenon that is the commercialization of college sports. This comment will highlight recent historical challenges with Title IX's application in college athletics with a focus on men’s gymnastics. This comment proposes that the Office for Civil Rights revoke their policy letter outlining the binary proportionality test, so that universities will be incentivized to use more qualitative measures of compliance. Finally, this comment will highlight developing legal issues with the application of the binary proportionality test on transgender athletes.

The Fluidity of Gender and Implications for the Biology of Inclusion for Transgender and Intersex Athletes.

One of the most contentious issues in modern day sport arises when sports are divided into male and female categories. The International Association of Athletics Federations' (IAAF) previous policy regulating intersex athletes was suspended by the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS), resulting in a new policy. The challenge faced by the governing body of athletics is to formulate a policy that upholds both international law and the Olympic charter that stipulates athletes compete without discrimination of any kind. Implementation of the policy has been delayed until after a verdict, expected no later than March 26, 2019, in the Semenya versus IAAF trial in the Court of Arbitration for Sport. If the policy is enacted, it will restrict athletes from competing in the female athletics category with specific differences of sex development (DSD) in races from 400 m up to the mile in international level competitions unless they lower their natural testosterone (T) levels below 5 nmol·L. To thoroughly assess this new IAAF policy, one needs to appreciate its legal, sociological, and scientific underpinnings but also the history of previous policies attempting to define precisely how athletes should be divided into male and female categories. We previously proposed a system to deal with gender variant athletes that relied on a determination of an "athlete/athletic gender." The concept of "athlete gender" was presented to multiple audiences, and the resulting survey is included. A large majority of participants (71% of 153) who answered the survey agreed with the idea of an athlete gender. This position also was accompanied by the request for more studies (20% of those who agreed) and concern over the process of hormone monitoring (32% of those who agreed) to avoid doping misuse. The primary argument of those participating in the survey that disagreed with the position (23% of 153) was that biological differences between males and females remained even after the transition (47% of opposing comments). Mixed gender/sex competitions provide unique opportunities for athletes to compete against one another outside of the traditional male/female divide and pave the way for a more flexible approach for dealing with gender variant athletes.

Inclusive Spaces and Locker Rooms for Transgender Athletes

The purpose of this article is to articulate the need for a strong commitment to transgender inclusion in sport and physical activity, including in locker rooms and team spaces. The authors begin by defining key constructs and offering a theoretical overview of stigma toward transgender individuals. The focus then shifts to the changing opportunities for transgender athletes at all participation levels, case law and rulings germane to the topic, and the psychological, physical, and social outcomes associated with inclusion and exclusion. Next, the authors present frequently voiced concerns about transgender inclusion, with an emphasis on safety and privacy. Given the review, the authors present the case for inclusive locker rooms, which permit access by transgender athletes to facilities that correspond to their gender identity. The authors conclude with the official AKA position statement—“The American Kinesiology Association endorses inclusive locker rooms, by which we mean sex-segregated facilities that are open to transgender athletes on the basis of their gender identity”—and implications for sport and physical activity.

Sporting hyperchallenges: Health, social, and fiscal implications

There has been a rise in sport-focused event management organisations staging increasingly challenging quests for amateur athletes. Whilst endeavours such as running a marathon or completing an Ironman triathlon were previously pinnacle achievements for amateur athletes, sporting hyperchallenges, events covering greater distances, crossing more difficult terrain, or posing more extreme challenges have set the performance bar significantly higher. Cast against Western neoliberal backdrops the ever-expanding supply-side of this market is broadening opportunities for amateur athletes to test their physical limits, thus necessitating investment of inordinate personal resources. Simultaneously, there is growing empirical and anecdotal evidence suggesting unfavourable impacts can flow from intensely pursuing extreme endurance sports including impacts to athletes’ health and relationships. The authors draw upon intertwined theories of business ethics and corporate social responsibility to critique business practices of sport-focused event management organisations delivering sporting hyperchallenges. The authors propose a conceptual framework aimed at encouraging future research into potential health, social, and fiscal implications stemming from this complex, unregulated market.

Understanding parasport: an analysis of the differences between able-bodied and parasport from a sport policy perspective

ABSTRACTParasport is a growing field of study with many countries recognising the need to develop organisational structures in order to optimise the development of high-performance sport opportunities for Paralympic athletes. Policy development in this area is currently still under developed and a significant knowledge gap is apparent regarding the development of Paralympic athlete programmes, and the understanding of how to develop long-term athlete pathways. This study hereby aims to address this gap by identifying how elite sport policy approaches differ between able-bodied and parasport. Sixteen international Paralympic experts participated in comprehensive semi-structured interviews guided by the theoretical framework of the Sport Policy Factors Leading to International Sporting Success model. The results of this study suggest that a ‘one-size-fits-all approach’ does not exist in order to develop an effective parasport system. This study provides a framework illustrating the major differences between the able-bodied and parasport systems. Notably, this influences the way sport policies should be developed in order to generate awareness among sport policymakers and high-performance directors, in aid of helping them to understand parasport as a whole and its intricacies.

Determining If Competition Level Matters in Developing Positive and Negative Youth Sportsmanship

Millions of young athletes engage in youth sport every year at a variety of levels ranging from beginning instruction up through elite national competitions. Parents are frequently registering these youth in sport for a variety of benefits including the frequently mentioned purpose of “building character”. Although a vague term, building character is often associated with the concept of moral behavior or sportsmanship. Youth sport professionals hoping to develop programs focused on the benefits of improving sportsmanship should understand how all aspects of their programs can either improve or hinder these types of behaviors. This requires a greater understanding of how the level of competition will contribute to both positive and negative sportsmanship behaviors. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine if differences in positive and negative sportsmanship behaviors exist at various levels of competitive youth sport experiences. To accomplish this, systematic observations occurred at two different soccer tournaments. The first tournament was designed for elite athletes in the Mountain West region of the US while the second tournament was more recreationally based and was located in the South East. A total of 62 games were observed of young athletes in the U-12 and U-14 age groups. Prior to observing these games, observers went through an extensive training to ensure that they could reach 80% agreement in their observations of both the positive and negative sportsmanship behaviors engaged in by the athletes, spectators, and coaches of each game. Results from this study suggest a lack of difference between the two competitive levels in terms of positive sportsmanship behavior, but a significant (<i>p</i> < 05) difference did exist between the elite athletes and recreational athletes in the number of negative sportsmanship behaviors demonstrated in a half game with the elite athletes engaging in nearly four times as many negative sportsmanship behaviors. Although some limitations do exist, youth sport professionals can use this information in a variety of ways. To begin, programs targeted at improving sportsmanship now know how to better target their efforts. This can be done through additional trainings for the programs serving elite athletes. Finally, it is important to note that programs at all levels were demonstrating many positive qualities. Consequently, it would behoove youth sport professionals to attempt to minimize the negative behaviors without eliminating the opportunities for athletes, coaches, and spectators to behave positively.

DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM EVALUATION OF THE INDONESIA PROGRAM FOR GOLD MEDAL FOR SPORTS OF TENNIS

This study aimed to evaluate the sport of tennis for The Indonesia Program for Gold Medal) or Program Indonesia Emas PRIMA), which is an evaluation study using model context, input, process, product and outcomes (CIPPO). Research shows that: 1) context evaluation is good – it has a purpose, the legal basis and the analysis of an adequate community; 2) Input evaluation is enough - has a mechanism of selection of athletes, coaches and managers, but need more socializations. The program needs some improvements such as; support facilities and infrastructure, national tennis training centre, adequate financial support, the necessity in involving the private and government enterprise; 3) Proccess evaluation is enough - planning and supervision of training has been well developed, but the implementation was not optimum, needs sport science embedded at the Team, and need more participation in international tournament; 4) Product evaluation is very bad - achievement of both as a Team and Individual athlete at the international multi event was not satisfied; 5) Outcomes evaluation is very good - this program provide more participation and opportunity for junior athletes. Therefore, I would like to recommend that this program should be extended with some improvement as research suggested.Keyword: Program Evaluation, CIPPO Model, The Indonesia Program for Gold Medal on Sport of Tennis.

PARTICIPATION AND PERFORMANCES IN COMPETITIONS: LATVIAN ORIENTEERING DEVELOPMENT EVIDENCE

Previous efforts to depict sport development opportunities resulted in a sport development metaphor, the participation pyramid (Sotiriadou, Shilbury &amp; Quick, 2008). The base of the sport development metaphor represents the relationship between mass and elite participation (Shilbury, Sotiriadou &amp; Green, 2008) and medals won during the Olympic Games (Sotiriadou, De Bosscher, 2013). The most important international competitions may, therefore, best represent overall sport systems (Sparvero, Chalip, &amp; Green, 2008), but competition opportunities for athletes are the factor contributing to elite success. The aim of this study is to determine the relationship between mass and elite orienteers’ participation and elite orienteers’ performances at the most important national and international orienteering competitions. Methods: the official most important orienteering national and international competition results from 2001 to 2016 were obtained from the websites of each annual organizing committee, linked to the International Orienteering Federation website and mathematical statistics was conducted. The results confirmed a strong, medium and weak relationship between mass and elite orienteers’ participation and elite orienteers’ performances in the most important national and international orienteering competitions. Orienteers’ movement up the participation pyramid is not automatic.