Athletic Identity Research Articles

Change in athletic identity after retirement from elite sport: In search of potential predictors using multi-level analysis

Introduction
 Elite athletes spend a great amount of time training and competing. Accordingly, their live is focused on and shaped by sport. As a result, many athletes develop a strong athletic identity, which may be defined as the extent to which athletes identify with their role as athletes (Brewer, 1993). While risk and opportunities associated with a strong athletic identity are clear, little is known about how athletic identity develops over the course of a sport career. Some studies suggest that athletic identity remains stable over time (e.g., Hadiyan & Cosh, 2019), while other studies attribute some plasticity to it (e.g., Brewer et al., 2010). The purpose of this study was to examine how the athletic identity develops beyond a career in elite sport. In addition, we searched for potential predictors of athletic identity during and after career.
 Methods
 A longitudinal survey of 290 athletes (32.8% women; 67.2% men) was conducted during (t1) and after their careers (t2; 12 years later). The German version of the Athletic Identity Measurement Scale (AIMS D; Schmid & Seiler, 2003) was used to measure athletic identity. Besides, data were collected on demographic (gender, age) and sports-related variables (sporting success, career satisfaction, time of retirement, voluntariness of retirement, involvement in sport after retirement). Data were analyzed using multi-level regression models.
 Results
 The analysis revealed that athletic identity decreased over time. However, there was considerable heterogeneity across athletes. In particular, the status as an athlete (i.e., professional vs. dual career), exclusivity of the role as an athlete, and time to retirement predicted athletic identity at t1. To explain the development of athletic identity, interaction terms between time and the different predictors were also modeled. Three significant effects were found: In particular, a slower decline in athletic identity was found for athletes who were (a) working in the field of sport after their athletic retirement, (b) involved in (recreational) competitive sport, and (c) satisfied with their sport career.
 Discussion/Conclusion
 As expected, on average, the role as an athlete is reduced in an individual’s identity (and is probably replaced by other roles). However, sport may still be shaping athletes’ identity, notably their athletic career has been satisfying and if their occupation revolves around sports. Future research is needed to better understand how former athletes reshape their identity and what sources of meaning they tap into after athletic retirement to promote quality of life.
 References
 Brewer, B. W. (1993). Self-identity and specific vulnerability to depressed mood. Journal of Personality, 61(3), 343–364. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1993.tb00284.x
 Brewer, B. W., Cornelius, A. E., Stephan, Y., & van Raalte, J. (2010). Self-protective changes in athletic identity following anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 11(1), 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2009.09.005
 Hadiyan, H., & Cosh, S. (2019). Level of physical and motor fitness post retirement and maintenance of athletic identity within active retired athletes. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 24(1), 84–95. https://doi.org/10.1080/15325024.2018.1540206
 Schmid, J., & Seiler, R. (2003). Identität im Hochleistungssport: Überprüfung einer deutschsprachigen Adaptation der Athletic Identity Measurement Scale (AIMS-D) [Identity in high-performance sport: Psychometric investigations with a German Language adaptation of the Athletic Identity Measurement Scale (AIMS-D)]. Diagnostica, 49(4), 176–183. https://doi.org/10.1026//0012-1924.49.4.176

A dialogical self approach to understanding identity as negotiated in retirement from elite sport

Every athlete will eventually retire from their career in elite sport. Despite its inevitability, following their encounter with this critical event, many athletes are left vulnerable to diversions from psychological well-being (Park et al., 2013). In their review, Cosh et al. (2021) report that somewhere between 18% to 39% of retired athletes experience mental health challenges, such as anxiety and depressive symptoms, after career termination. While the literature surrounding retirement from sport and well-being cites various factors contributing to the quality of adjustment, a large body of research has focused on the predictive factor of athletic identity, the extent of identification with the athlete role (Brewer et al., 1993) and the negative relationship it tends to have with psychological well-being during retirement (Douglas & Carless, 2009; Kuettel et al., 2017; Warriner & Lavallee, 2008). Although these findings have led to recommendations for a shift away from monologic performance-based narratives (Brewer & Petitpas, 2017; Park et al., 2013) the concept of a diversified identity in high performance sporting careers is relatively underexplored. Therefore, this project aims to expand on existing research demonstrating the possibility of alternative narratives (Douglas & Carless, 2006) and the notion that there is room within the presentation of identity for multiple voices to be represented and heard in negotiation or contradiction with one another (Peterson & Langellier, 2006; Ronkainen & Ryba 2020). To conceptualize how athletes’ evolving self-concepts might be comprised of multiple identities, we introduce Dialogical Self Theory (DST; Hermans & Kempen, 1993) which has been previously applied to research surrounding identity and transitions, such as childhood development and cultural migration (Hermans & Gieser, 2012). According to the theory, one’s inner world is made up of several “I”-positions which are constantly positioned relative to each other (Konopka et al., 2018). These “I-positions” are by nature dynamic and can move depending on changes in time and situation (Hermans & Hermans-Konopka, 2010). Pauha and Ronkainen (2021) applied DST to their recent examination of conflicting positions of an intersectional identity. Their interesting findings demonstrating an athlete in dialogue have inspired our current project which seeks to answer: How are identities negotiated in athletes’ stories during retirement from elite sport? Semi-structured interviews informed by The Life Story Interview (Atkinson,1998), with ten recently retired elite athletes were conducted at one to three months after they officially announced their retirement to Swiss Olympic. Interviews were conducted in person and lasted on average 90 minutes. Preliminary results from the narrative analysis are discussed and provide insights of the various, non-performance related “I”-positions present amongst athletes. A case study is used to illustrate the implicit ways in which elite athletes may or may not engage in “identity work” while transitioning out of their careers, along with the practical implications of these findings.

The role of achievement goals and identity in academic performance and misconduct of college athletes: Considering sport-to-school spillover

This study examined the role of achievement goal orientations (academic mastery and performance, athletic task and ego) and identity (academic and athletic) in the academic performance and misconduct of Division I student-athletes (N = 1151). Results of the structural equation modeling showed that academic performance was predicted positively by academic performance goal and academic identity (both directly and indirectly through performance goal) and negatively by athletic identity. Academic misconduct was predicted negatively by both self-referenced goals (academic mastery and athletic task), but positively by athletic ego goal. A positive indirect relationship was found between academic identity and academic misconduct through academic mastery goal. Opposing indirect relationships were found between athletic identity and academic misconduct through task and ego goals, which canceled each other out. Taken together, findings highlight the importance of fostering strong academic identities and setting self-referenced goals in school and sport for the academic success of Division I student-athletes.

Gain insight into athletic identity foreclosure and the student‐athlete

The college experience can be life‐changing, a period that allows for personal growth as new students are exposed to and become aware of different people, cultures, and points of view.

Student-Athlete Identity Variation Across the Undergraduate Period: A Mixed-Methods Study.

We examined the influence of individual and contextual characteristics on student-athlete identities and then explored identity variations across the undergraduate college years. Our main analysis relied on a quantitative study of a large sample of cross-sectional data (n = 862: females = 490, males = 372) with follow-up data for 102 participants. We also used qualitative semi-structured interviews within a small sub-sample (n = 4) who participated in international competitions to provide deeper insight into their identities across time. We used the Portuguese version of the Baller Identity Measurement Scale (BIMS) to explore student-athlete identities, and we examined the influence of sex, student-athlete status (based on institution documents), the participant's competitive level in the sport, and the student athlete's university type. We modelled response probability on BIMS items with multilevel ordinal regression in a cumulative model based on the Bayesian framework. For the follow-up in-depth qualitative interviews of four participants competing at the international level, we used thematic analysis, with two independent researchers generating thematic codes. We found a non-significant trend toward a decreased student-athlete identity across the undergraduate years. Participants' statements reflected their difficulty combining both aspects of the student-athlete identity, such that they tried to shift their identities, depending on the circumstances, while their athletic identity seemed to be privileged. Hence, participants had difficulty combining a dual academic-sport career within a context oriented toward academic achievement and transition to professional life. The higher education context was unprepared to support student-athletes toward a dual academic-sport career.

Parents’/guardians’ experiences with their adolescents’ prolonged recovery from a sport-related concussion

Sport-related concussions (SRCs) occur at alarming rates among adolescents and evidence suggests that adolescents experience more severe and longer-lasting symptoms compared to other age groups. Developmentally, adolescence is a time when youth become less reliant on their parents, establish their personal identity, and rely more on other social support networks (e.g., peers, teammates). However, previous studies show that parents play a prominent role in the recovery process from an SRC, especially in situations where recovery is prolonged. The purpose of this study was to examine the lived experiences of parents/guardians of teens who were recovering from a concussion and whose symptoms were persistent. Participants ( N = 12) were individually interviewed to better understand how they navigated and advocated for their teen during their prolonged recovery. An inductive content analysis revealed eight thematic categories that were interpreted with a developmental lens: (a) difficulties enforcing cognitive and physical rest, (b) concerns about depression and isolation, (c) observing struggles with athletic identity, (d) feelings of frustration, helplessness, and stress, (e) challenges of a hidden injury, (f) decisions about returning to sport, (g) being lied to about symptoms, and (h) offering strategies and practical advice. The themes illustrate how challenging and complicated the recovery process can be for parents of teenagers in particular, which is supported in previous concussion studies and the broader developmental literature. These results reinforce the idea that taking a biopsychosocial approach to care is best in order to adequately support parents/guardians and adolescents during the SRC recovery process.

Examining the Professional Identity Development of Professional Master's Athletic Training Students: A Cohort Study

Context Professional identity development in professional master's (PM) athletic training students occurs over time and is influenced by numerous socializing factors. Although socialization processes of athletic training students have been examined, professional identity development related to the Weidman et al graduate and professional student socialization framework [Weidman JC, Twale DJ, Stein EL, et al. Socialization of Graduate and Professional Students in Higher Education: A Perilous Passage? ASHE-ERIC higher education report. Vol 28, No. 3. Jossey-Bass Higher and Adult Education Series; 2001] has never been examined in athletic training. This model values the multiple networks, individuals, and experiences that influence graduate students throughout their program. Objective To assess the lived experiences of 1 cohort of students enrolled in a PM athletic training program and determine what curricular and clinical education factors influence the development of professional identity. Design Qualitative study. Setting Focus group interview. Patients or Other Participants Ten of 12 (83%) students (5 females and 5 males) from a single PM athletic training cohort program participated. Data Collection and Analysis We conducted a focus group interview, which we transcribed verbatim, with participants during the last week of their last semester in the PM athletic training program. Data analysis was deductive and then inductive throughout the coding process, and we reached data saturation at the individual participant and cohort levels. We ensured trustworthiness through multiple analyst triangulation, peer expert review, and multiple data sources. Results Three factors influenced the development of the PM athletic training student's professional identity: (1) their clinical education experiences, (2) the cohort experience, and (3) their school/life balance. Within the clinical education experience, the immersive experience, clinical setting, and patients and preceptors were also influential. Conclusions This study used the Weidman et al socialization model. The experiences of PM athletic training students and their professional identity development are inclusive of the relationship with others throughout the educational experience, as well as their self-reflective practices within the field. It is important for stakeholders to understand the many factors that influence professional identity development.

The Relationship Between the Athlete Identities of Footballers and Their Level of Commitment to Sports

This study aims to evaluate the relationship between the athlete identities and their commitment to sports in terms of whether amateur and professional licensed footballers who are playing football in local and amateur football clubs differ according to various demographic characteristics. Footballers of the 1st Amateur, 2nd Amateur, and Regional Amateur Leagues registered in the Elazığ Amateur Sports Clubs Federation participated in the research. "Athlete Identity Scale" was developed by Brewer and Cornelius (2001) and adapted to Turkish by Öztürk and Koca (2013) and "Athlete Commitment Scale" was developed by Kayhan, Bardakçı, and Caz (2020) developed by Guillen and Martinez-Alvarado (2014) were used as data collection tools in the study. As a result of the research, while there was a significant difference in the athlete identity according to the license level variable of the football players, there was no significant difference in the level of commitment to sports. While there was a significant difference according to the league level, infrastructure training, age variable, and education status variable of the footballers, there was no significant difference according to the athlete year variable.Keywords: Athlete identity, Commitment to Sports, Football

Validation of the French Version of the Scale for Measuring Athletic Identity among French Student Athletes

The main objective of this article is to examine the validity of a French version of the Athletic Identity Measurement Scale (AIMS) with a sample of French varsity athletes according to different characteristics such as age, gender and types of sports activities practiced. To this end, 445 sports students answered a questionnaire measuring the degree of Likert-type sports identity on a 7-point scale. The sample included 272 men and 173 women with an average age of 21 years. Validation of the factor structure and internal consistency was tested by performing confirmatory factor analyzes and calculating Cronbach's alpha coefficient on the four different models most proposed in the literature. The results related to the exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis showed that the four AIMS models tested in this study are not appropriate for the French context. On the other hand, they made it possible to identify a measurement model composed of two factors; identities and exclusivity. For the two factors, no significant difference appeared between the subgroups of age, sex and the types of sports activities practiced. Therefore, the two-factor model identified in this research stands out from the already existing models. To further test its robustness, it would therefore be desirable to test it in socio-cultural contexts close to that of France.

The effect of sensory experience on sport development: baseball simulation in Korea

ABSTRACT Rationale A baseball simulation provides its participants a sporting environment in which programmed game mechanics mediate sensory stimuli. The current study aims to discover how simulation users’ interests in baseball, athletic identity, and intentions to participate in baseball differ by degree of stimuli. The results would reveal the dynamics of how baseball simulation users’ sensory experiences relate to their baseball development. Design Data collection, taken at two Korean baseball simulation franchises, involved 136 simulation participants. On a self-administered survey, participants answered questions about their degree of perceiving visual, aural, and tactile stimuli as well as their baseball interest, athletic identity, and intentions to participate in baseball. The collected data were analyzed in MANOVA. Findings The simulation users’ interests in baseball differed according to the degree of visual and aural stimuli. Regarding the degree of tactile stimuli, the simulation users differed in the degree to which they identified as an athlete and intended to participate in baseball. Playing a crucial role in their baseball development was their tactile sense. Practical implications The study suggests managerial implications that sport practitioners implement toward developing a new participatory market. Research contribution The study reveals how sport simulation users interact with the simulation's multi-dimensional environments.

Athlete Identity and Mental Health of Student Athletes during COVID-19

The purpose of our study is to evaluate athletic identity (AI) and mental health measures of youth and young adult athletes during the COVID-19 pandemic. This cross-sectional study recruited athletes aged 11-25 years from universities, high schools, and middle schools in California and New York. Participants were emailed a link to an anonymous, cross-sectional electronic survey. The measure included the athletic identity measurement scale (AIMS), the Patient Health Questionnaire-4 (PHQ-4), and demographic variables. Chi-square, Fisher's Exact Test, and linear regression were used to examine the relationships between AI, symptoms of anxiety, and symptoms of depression by age, gender, and race. The survey was completed by 653 participants. AI was stratified by tertiary percentiles. The odds of positively scoring for symptoms of anxiety were 60% higher for participants in college compared with high school (OR: 1.60, 95% CI: [1.09, 2.35]). Conversely, the odds of scoring positively for symptoms of depression were 68% higher for participants in high school compared to college (OR: 1.68, 95% CI: [1.09, 2.59]). The odds of scoring positively for symptoms of depression were higher for athletes who scored as high AI, compared to those who scored as moderate (OR: 1.72, 95% CI: [1.11, 2.68]) or low (OR: 1.93, 95% CI: [1.20, 3.12]). The odds of scoring positively for symptoms of anxiety on the PHQ-4 were 3.2 times higher for participants who identified as female (OR: 3.19, 95% CI: [2.31, 4.41]), and the odds of scoring positively for symptoms of depression were 2.4 times higher for participants who identified as female (OR: 2.35, 95% CI: [1.56, 3.54]). Female athletes experienced symptoms of depression and anxiety at significantly higher rates than male athletes during the COVID-19 pandemic. High school students experienced fewer symptoms of anxiety, but greater symptoms of depression as compared to the collegiate group, while college students experienced greater odds of symptoms of anxiety. Athletes in the high AI group were more likely to report symptoms of depression than moderate or low identity groups. Female athletes reported lower AI than male athletes, but still had greater symptoms of anxiety and depression.

Identity gripping or identity flight? Two distinct experiences correlated with self-reported depression in retired professional ice hockey players

ABSTRACTThis study presents qualitative data on the retirement experiences of retired professional ice hockey players and the relationship of these experiences to self-reported depressive symptoms and measures of athletic identity. Data were obtained from an online survey sent to retired professional hockey players within the Professional Hockey Players’ Association (PHPA) database. A total of 213 retired players completed the qualitative section of the survey and were included in the study. Former players expressed an array of responses to questions about the best and most difficult parts of their athletic retirement experiences, and what they believe would help future generations of retiring hockey players. Within these responses, there were two distinct patterns of identity-based challenges among depressed former players. One subset of depressed former players, captured by our proposed term athletic identity flight, scored lower in athletic identity, and emphasized positive aspects of retirement related to “building a new identity.” A second subset of depressed former players, who we described with the term athletic identity gripping, noted an identity crisis upon retiring and retained a strong athletic identity post-career. Non-depressed former players in our sample were more likely to emphasize the importance of career support to help future retiring hockey players, whereas depressed former players emphasized the importance of mental health support. Our findings may inform future preventative interventions to assist retiring hockey players in their end-of-athletic-career transition and suggest the value of tailoring interventions based on the strength of athletic identity and the presence of depressive symptoms.Lay summary: Retired professional ice hockey players with self-reported depression symptoms experienced two distinct identity challenges when transitioning out of sport. Some appeared to actively distance themselves from their former athletic identity (athletic identity flight). Others experienced an identity crisis and appeared to maintain their athletic identity over time (athletic identity gripping).Implications for practice: Based on both quantitative and qualitative data analysis, results suggest that athletic identity is a factor to consider when tailoring interventions for professional hockey players transitioning to athletic retirement. Interventions may vary based on relationship with athletic identity during the transition; some will experience an “identity crisis” and attempt to hold onto their athletic identity, which may be a risk factor for long-term depressive symptoms. Others may actively distance themselves from their athletic identity during the transition, possibly due to emotional pain associated with the athlete role.Depending on the presence of depressive symptoms, retiring players may have different intervention needs to assist with athletic retirement. Non-depressed players may benefit from practical support, such as planning their next career. Depressed players may benefit more from mental health outreach. Aligned with duty of care principles, results indicate a need for screening retiring athletes to identify those at risk for depression.

Commodifiaction Of Workers On Esports Athletes In Digital Sports Industry

The Esports industry has begun to produce various media platforms that display interesting game content played by athletes, to attract viewers to join the platform through live streaming. The purpose of this study is to analyze the meaning of commodification of workers from the athlete's perspective, who are already involved as commodities. The expected benefits are recommendations to minimize the forms of commodification such as exploitation of workers. This study uses a review of media political economy theory that is associated with the movement of the esports industry ecosystem. The approach used in this research is qualitative by using a descriptive study. The data collection technique uses an in-depth interview method with esports athletes, virtual observation, and collecting documents. The findings are that esports athletes consciously feel that their identity as an athlete becomes a commodity that has a selling value to agencies and other actors in the digital sports industry. However, the good income and not being seriously regulated, allows them to reach as much profit as possible, although there are still revenue cuts from the agency. This profit also changes their early goals and mindset as esports athletes, from being a games players and start thinking about profit even though they realize are being exploited. The finding is the athlete's ability to conjure up their role as a commodity in the industry, by utilizing the athlete's identity as a valueable commodity for their own benefit.

An Investigation of the Nature of Fear within ACL-Injured Subjects When Exposed to Provocative Videos: A Concurrent Qualitative and Quantitative Study.

Fear is a factor contributing to poor return to sport after an anterior cruciate (ACL) injury, however the identification and assessment of fear is challenging. To improve understanding of fear, this study qualitatively and quantitatively assessed responses to videos depicting threat to knee stability in people who had experienced an ACL injury. ACL-injured participants who had above average fear on the Tampa Scale of Kinesiophobia and were at least 1-year post-injury/surgery were eligible. Participants were shown four videos depicting sequentially increasing threat to their knee stability (running, cut-and-pivot, feigned knee injury during cut-and-pivot, series of traumatic knee injuries). Qualitative interviews explored participants feeling related to viewing the videos. Participants quantitatively self-rated fear and distress in response to each video. Seventeen participants were included in this study (71% female, with an average time since last ACL injury of 5 ½ years). Five themes were identified: (1) Evoked physiological responses, (2) Deeper contextualisation of the meaning of an ACL injury influencing bodily confidence, (3) Recall of psychological difficulties, (4) Negative implications of a re-injury, and (5) Change to athletic identity. Quantitatively, direct proportionality was noticed between threat level and reported fear and distress. Specifically, participants reported increasing levels of fear and distress as the videos progressed in threat level, with the largest increase seen between a cut-and-pivot movement to a feigned injury during a cut and pivot. The results support the notion that in addition to being a physical injury, an ACL injury has more complex neurophysiological, psychological, and social characteristics which should be considered in management. Using video exposure in the clinic may assist identification of underlying psychological barriers to recovery following an ACL injury, facilitating person-centred care.

Abstract 10977: Shared Decision-Making in Athletes Diagnosed With a Cardiovascular Condition: A Scoping Review

Introduction: Exercise restriction following the identification of a cardiovascular condition can profoundly impact the identity, career, and well-being of athletes. Shared decision-making (SDM) is emerging as the standard of care to guide recommendations for athletes at risk of cardiovascular events. This scoping review summarizes existing approaches, barriers, and facilitators to SDM in sports cardiology. Methods: A literature search of the MEDLINE, Embase, Cochrane Library, PubMed, CINAHL, SPORTDiscus, and PsycInfo databases was conducted in January 2022. Abstract screening and full-text review were completed in duplicate by independent reviewers. The PCC (Participants, Concepts, Context) framework was used to assess study eligibility. Included articles discussed the use of SDM (C/C) following the diagnosis of a cardiovascular condition in an athlete (P). Results: A total of 6,049 records were screened, of which 38 were included in this review. Article classifications included theoretical papers (31), such as editorials and guidelines, and research studies (7). Main findings of the research studies are shown in Table 1. All selected articles defined SDM as an open dialogue between the athlete, healthcare team, and other stakeholders (e.g., parents, coaches). The benefits and risks of management strategies, treatment options, and return-to-play were the focus of this dialogue. Common themes among SDM approaches emerged, such as emphasizing patient values, considering non-physical factors (e.g., emotional, psychological, financial), and informed consent. Barriers to SDM included pressure from institutions and liability of healthcare providers in the case of adverse events. Conclusions: SDM is the recommended paradigm for providing care to athletes diagnosed with cardiovascular conditions. Further education for healthcare providers regarding the SDM approach, as well as future research assessing SDM in a clinical setting, is needed.

Biopsychosocial Experiences of Elite Athletes Retiring From Sport for Career-Ending Injuries: A Critically Appraised Topic

Injuries cause individuals varying amounts of time loss from participation, which may depend on injury and sport-specific factors such as level of participation. Athletes who never return to sport either choose or are forced to retire due to numerous factors. At elite levels of play, when an athlete chooses retirement, they have the opportunity to create and execute a retirement plan; however, if unexpected (eg,due to career-ending injury), athletes may struggle to transition out of sport effectively, impacting physical, mental, and social health. The biopsychosocial model looks at the relationship between biology, psychology, and socio-environmental factors. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to better understand the biopsychosocial experiences elite athletes face after a career-ending injury so that sport stakeholders can develop and implement strategies to support a healthy transition. How does suffering a career-ending injury affect elite athletes' biopsychosocial experiences during retirement from sport? All studies found that a career-ending injury negatively impacted athlete's biopsychosocial health during the transition period. In addition, social support was identified as a positive coping mechanism and research highlighted the role of education in promoting successful transitions. Sport stakeholders should educate athletes regarding the importance of creating secondary plans. By creating a culture of athletic and nonathletic identity, athletes can feel empowered to navigate different phases of their life despite transition being forced upon them due to injury. Career-ending injuries negatively impact the biopsychosocial experiences of elite athletes as they transition out of sport. Athletes may face many transitional challenges including a loss of identity, a lack of external support, and/or mental health decline; those more closely identifying with their role as an athlete tend to have a harder transition. Therefore, it is important for all athletes to be adequately prepared for sport retirement, especially given the uncertainty about when and how retirement may occur. Collectively, the body of evidence included to answer the clinical question aligns with the strength of recommendation of C.

Athletes Drink Gatorade: DMA Advertising Expenditures, Ad Recall, and Athletic Identity Influence Energy and Sports Drink Consumption

ABSTRACT Understanding why sports and energy drinks remain increasingly popular among adolescents despite declines in other sugar sweetened beverages is critical. This study points to memory for advertising exposure and adolescent athletic identity as two aspects that together help to explain consumption. An online survey of U.S. adolescents aged 14–18 (n = 503) was combined with Nielsen data for television and social media advertising expenditures by sports and energy drink brands in participants’ designated market areas (DMAs). Advertisement recall mediates the relationship between social media DMA expenditures and sports and energy drink consumption. Recall for television advertisements is related to consumption but is unrelated to television DMA expenditures. Athletic identity moderated the relationship between recall and consumption such that consumption increased as both recall and athletic identity increased, suggesting a role for motivated memory and motivated processing of ad messages based on athletic identity consistent with the limited capacity model of motivated media message processing. Based on these results, we conclude that effectiveness of expenditures in influencing behavior is dependent upon both ad recall and ad relevance, and that athletic identity is an important factor in ad effectiveness in the context of sports and energy drinks advertising.

The Role of Ancient Sports and Zurkhaneh in Ethical Promoting and Religious Virtues

ABSTRACT The roots of ‘ancient sport’, or Zurkhaneh, as its name implies, go back to ancient Iran and the rituals of Mithraism, in which believers pray and learn morality and humanity in cave-shape temples built in connection with running water. After the advent of Islam and the fall of the ancient religions, temples gave way to Zurkhanehs, and athletes who, while learning moral teachings, cultivated physical strength to resist external enemy forces and internal oppression, grown in those Zurkhanehs. With a tendency to Sufism, Shi`ism and following the first Imam of the Shiites, athletes became heroes and knights, many of whom today, after hundreds of years, are still the cultural myths of the people of Iran. The ancient sports such as wrestling are a symbol of human and moral virtues, the promotion of which can lead to the growth and development of the moral beauty and chivalry culture among all athletes in various sports and lead to institutionalize characteristics of heroism and magnanimity in society. Ancient sports exercising tools, art and architecture of Zurkhaneh, poems, rituals and personalities form the nature of Zurkhaneh and ancient sports have a great impact on the formation of heroic identity and the way to perform the sport movements with the special instruments of Zurkhaneh, which is accompanied by epic and religious poems. In fact, Zurkhaneh instruments, the type of poems that are recited and the existence of epic and religious patterns complement each other. This process increases the effect of Zurkhaneh on the formation of athletic and heroic identity among sportsmen. As such, it will be suggested that Zurkhareh offers an ethical ideal from which globalized Western sport can learn.

Path Analysis: Predicting Psychological Performance Strategies in the Context of Athlete Identity

Teorik çerçevede ortak özellikleri bulunan sporcu kimliği ve psikolojik performans stratejileri arasındaki ilişkiye yönelik araştırmalar sınırlıdır. Bu doğrultuda yeni bilgilere katkıda bulunma girişimi ile araştırmanın amacı sporcu kimliğinin psikolojik performans stratejileri üzerindeki belirleyici rolünü tespit etmektir. Bu amaç doğrultusunda araştırmaya farklı takım sporu branşlardan (Futbol, Basketbol, Voleybol, Hentbol) profesyonel olarak spor yaşamına devam eden 302 erkek sporcu (yaş=22,18±4,60) gönüllü olarak katılmıştır. Araştırmada veri toplama aracı olarak araştırmacılar tarafından oluşturulan Kişisel Bilgi Formu, Sporcu Kimliği Ölçeği ve Psikolojik Performans Stratejileri Ölçeği kullanılmıştır. 302 katılımcıdan elde edilen verilerin analizinde ilk olarak normallik testi için çarpıklık basıklık değerleri, Q-Q grafiğinin dağılımları incelenmiş ve verilerin normal dağılıma uygun olduğu belirlenmiştir. Bu aşamadan sonra değişkenler arasında çoklu doğrusal bağlantı problemi olup olmadığı Pearson Momentler Çarpımı Korelasyon analizi ile incelenmiştir. Araştırma kapsamında ölçeklerin testi birinci ve ikinci düzey Doğrulayıcı Faktör Analizi ile test edildikten sonra, sporcu kimliğinin performans stratejileri üzerindeki yordayıcı rolü YEM analizi kullanılarak incelenmiştir. Elde edilen bulgular incelendiğinde, sporcu kimliğinin hedef belirleme, gevşeme, negatif düşünme, imgeleme, harekete geçme, kendinle konuşma ve duygusal kontrol stratejilerini anlamlı düzeyde yordadığı, otomatiklik alt boyutu üzerinde ise herhangi bir etkiye sahip olmadığı tespit edilmiştir. Sonuç olarak; yüksek düzeyde sporcu kimliğinin psikolojik performans stratejileri üzerinde etkisinin olduğu ve bu bulgulardan yola çıkarak araştırmacılar tarafından daha etkili psikolojik beceri antrenman programlarının geliştirilebileceği söylenebilir.

A development and preliminary validation of the brief version of the Japanese Academic and Athletic Identity Scale

The purpose of this study was to develop and validate a brief version of the Japanese Academic and Athletic Identity Scale (AAIS-JB), which would enable the survey to be easily conducted online nationwide in Japan. In addition, this study determined the centrality of academic and athletic identities in the elite student-athletes with scholarships and the sub-elite student-athletes with no scholarships. Participants ( n = 1009) consisted of student-athletes from 20 universities (5 districts) in Japan, of which 560 were elite athletes (i.e. receiving scholarships) and 449 were sub-elite athletes (i.e. not receiving scholarships). Results showed content validity, factorial validity, and reliability of the brief version of the AAIS-JB. Both athletic and academic identities were significantly higher for the elite student-athletes than for the sub-elite student-athletes. Differences between the elite and sub-elite student-athletes provide important insights into the further development of intercollegiate sports in Japan. Sports administrators and the coaching staffs engaged with student-athletes can support student-athletes by understanding more about the dominant dimensions of their identity to maximize its positive impact on student-athletes.