Athlete Development Research Articles

Storm Clouds on the Horizon: On the Emerging Need to Tighten Selection Policies.

Athlete selection is fundamental in elite sport, occurring regularly throughout an athlete's development. Research in this area reveals the accuracy of these decisions is questionable in even the most elite sport environments and athletes are increasingly disputing these decisions as unfair and punitive. As a countermeasure to these dispute and arbitration practices, many elite sport systems have created policies where coaches must outline and stand behind the criteria used for their selection decisions. Selection criteria policies have the potential to help encourage fair selection practices by holding selectors accountable to their selection criteria, but their implementation also has the potential to wrongfully nudge selectors toward developing more defendable, but less-accurate selection practices. The paper concludes with 10 suggestions to help support practitioners when implementing selection criteria.

Impact of the Cigarette Smoking on Athlete's Health: A Systematic Review

Objectives: Athletes' smoking is still an important issue in the field of competitive sports. At present, there are very few studies on Athletes' smoking. By reviewing the articles related to athletes' smoking, we explore the impact of smoking on Athletes' health, so as to provide theoretical reference for the healthy development of athletes. Methods: We will use index words related to athletes and smoking to perform literature searches in the Web of Science, PubMed, Medline, China National Knowledge Infrastructure Database (CNKI), China Science and Technology Journal Database and WanFang Database, to include articles indexed as of August 25, 2021, in English and Chinese. Results: 1. Cigarette smoking will cause lung function, cardiovascular system, nervous system and other organ damage of athletes, resulting in chronic bronchitis, lung cancer, coronary heart disease, atherosclerotic heart disease, myocardial infarction and other diseases. 2. Cigarette smoking leads to the decline of athletes' physical resistance and immunity, training weakness and sports ability. 3. Cigarette smoking seriously restricts the development of athletes' health and the improvement of sports performance. Conclusion: Cigarette smoking is harmful to the health of athletes. Stay away from tobacco and quit smoking is the wisest choice for athletes to keep healthy and improve their sports performance.

The Effect of Power Plate and Both Sides Up Exercises on Balance Development of Fitness Athletes

Amaç: Fitness merkezine düzenli gelen bireylere uygulanan power plate ve both sides up (bosu) egzersizlerinin denge gelişimine etkisinin incelenmesidir. Yöntem: Araştırmanın çalışma grubu, fitness merkezine düzenli gelen 18-35 yaş aralığında 40 erkek katılımcıdan oluşmaktadır. Gönüllü olarak çalışmaya katılan katılımcılar tesadüfi yöntemle 10’ar kişilik 4 gruba ayrılmıştır. Bu gruplar, 10 kişi power plate deney, 10 kişi power plate kontrol ve 10 kişi bosu deney, 10 kişi bosu kontrol grubundan oluşmaktadır. Araştırma gruplarına boy, vücut ağırlığı, vücut yağ oranı, alt-üst ekstremite uzunluk, Y Denge, Fonksiyonel Uzanma ve Flamingo test ölçümleri yapılmıştır. Deney gruplarına, haftada 3 gün, günde bir saat olarak toplam 12 hafta çalışmalar yapılmıştır. Kontrol grubu 12 hafta süre ile uygulamaların dışında tutulmuştur. Bulgular: Araştırmada, deney gruplarında vücut ağırlığı, vücut yağ oranı, Y Denge, Fonksiyonel Uzanma ve Flamingo son test ortalama sonuçları arasında anlamlı farklılık bulunmuştur (p<0,05). Kontrol gruplarında vücut ağırlıgı, vücut yağ oranı, Y Denge, Fonksiyonel Uzanma ve Flamingo son test ortalama sonuçları arasında anlamlı farklılık bulunmamıştır (p>0,05). Bosu ve power plate kontol grupları ön test ile son test ortalama sonuçları arasında anlamlı farklılık bulunmamıştır (p>0,05). Bosu ve power plate deney grupları ön test sonuçlarında anlamlı farklılık bulunmazken, son test ortalama sonuçları arasında vücut yağ oranında anlamlı bir farklılık bulunmuştur (p<0,05). Sonuç: Vücut ağırlığı ile uygulanan bosu ve power plate üzerinde yapılan düzenli ve sistemli egzersizlerin bireylerin denge değerlerinde bir farklılığın oluştuğunu göstermektedir. Ayrıca vücut ağırlığı ve vücut yağ oranında anlamlı oranda azalma olduğu gözlemlenmiştir.

한국 봅슬레이 스켈레톤 종목 발전사 관점에서 본 서울연맹 창단의 의미

Purpose: The purpose of this study is to determine the background and role of the establishment of the Seoul Federation, and the impact of the Seoul Federation on Korean bobsleigh and skeleton.<BR> Method: The research method used literature review and in-depth interview methods. Various records, such as bobsleigh, skeleton specialized books and internal reports of the Korean Federation, internal reports of the Seoul Federation, and news were collected as primary data. The secondary data are in-depth interview data, which are collected and analyzed to supplement the primary data.<BR> Results: The results of this study are as follows. First, the Seoul Federation was founded with the aim of promoting national prestige at the 2018 Pyeongchang Olympics by selecting bobsleigh and skeleton athletes with the center of sports scholars. Second, Kim Dong-hyun, a bobsleigh silver medalist, and Yoon Sung-bin, a skeleton gold medalist, were selected through the Seoul Federation selection business. Third, in the early days of the introduction of sports, the Seoul Federation and the Korean Federation worked together to select players. Fourth, the Seoul Federation is working to expand the base of the sport by operating the development of rookie athletes, classes, and sports classes. There are also a number of national players and students from Korea National Sport University selected through the Seoul Federation’s player development project.<BR> Conclusion: Studies have shown that skeleton gold medals and bobsleigh silver medals at the 2018 Pyeongchang Winter Olympics are not coincidental. The athletes’ performance growth and the result of winning the international competition will be the result of the players’ hard work. However, the beginning was a player selection policy for the creation and development of the Seoul Federation, which should be recorded.

Relationship among high school Taekwondo coach’s controlling coaching behavior and athletes aggression, and sport antisocial behavior

The purpose this study was to identify the Relationship among high school Taekwondo coach’s controlling coaching behavior and athletes aggression, and sport antisocial behavior. he participants were 338 (male 240 and female 85) high school Taekwondo athletes and their mean age was 17.52. They were registered as athletes with the Korean Sport and Olympic Committee. Collected data were analyzed by using descriptive statistics, correlation, and Structural Equation Model(SEM). Four hypothesis were adopted. First, Controlling coaching behavior had a positive effect on aggression. Second, Controlling coaching behavior had a positive effect on anti social behavior. Third, aggression had a positive effect on anti social behavior. Fourth, Controlling coaching behavior had a positive indirect effect on anti social behavior by mediating aggression. It was identified that the relationship among perceived controlling coaching behavior, aggression, and anti social behavior of student atheltes. This result provide an implications for prevention of negative development of student athletes participating in elite sport.

Adaptive Athlete Training Plan Generation: An intelligent control systems approach

ObjectivesThe planning and control of team sport training activities is an extremely important aspect of athletic development and team performance. This research introduces a novel system which leverages techniques from the fields of control system theory and artificial intelligence to construct optimal future training plans when unexpected disturbances and deviations from a training plan goal occur. DesignSimulation-based experimental design. MethodsThe adaptation of training load prescriptions was formulated as an optimal control problem where we seek to minimize the difference between a desired training plan goal and an observed training outcome. To determine the most suitable approach to optimize future training loads the performance of an artificial intelligence-based feedback controller was compared to random and proportional controllers. Computational simulations (N = 1800) were conducted using a non-linear training plan spanning 60 days over a 12-week period, and the control strategies were assessed on their ability to adapt future training loads when disturbances and deviations from an optimal planning policy have occurred. Statistical analysis was conducted to determine if significant differences existed between the three control strategies. ResultsThe results of a repeated measures analysis of variance demonstrated that an intelligent feedback controller significantly outperforms the random (p < .001, ES = 7.41, very large) and proportional control (p < .001, ES = 7.41, very large) strategies at reducing the deviations from a training plan goal. ConclusionsThis system can be used to support the decision making of practitioners across several areas considered important for the effective planning and adaption of athletic training.

The anthropometric, physical, and relative age characteristics of an English Premiership rugby union academy

Long-term athlete development is a primary focus for the England Rugby Football Union (RFU). The purpose of this study was to explore the anthropometric, physical, and relative age characteristics of rugby union academy players based on age group and playing position. Seventy-eight participants were examined for height, body mass, 10 and 20 m sprint, countermovement jump, reactive strength index, aerobic capacity, isometric hip extension, dominant handgrip strength, and birth quartile (BQ) across three age categories (i.e., under-16, under-18, and under-21) and two positions (forwards and backs). ANOVA and Kruskall–Wallis analysis were used to examine differences across each age category and position. TukeyHSD and Dunn’s test with Bonferroni correction was used for further post-hoc analysis. BQ distributions were compared against national norms using chi-square analysis. Results revealed that both older forwards (P=0.005) and backs (P=0.002) had significantly greater body mass, maximal aerobic capacity, and power compared to younger players. However, older forwards had slower 10 m sprint times compared to younger forwards. Moreover, relatively older players were significantly overrepresented across all age groups when compared to relatively younger players. Findings suggest that: (a) players should aim to develop greater parameters of body mass and aerobic capacity; (b) forwards should aim to develop acceleration and strength; (c) backs should aim to develop power and quickness; (d) players need to develop anthropometric and physical qualities and differences are apparent by age and position; and, (e) coaches should consider relative age when recruiting and developing young players.&#x0D; Key words: Talent identification; Talent development; Expertise; Physical development; Physiological profile; Rugby football

Current Sport Organization Guidelines From the AMSSM 2019 Youth Early Sport Specialization Research Summit.

Youth athletes may be at elevated risk for adverse health due to sport specialization. Sport organizations have developed guidelines for participation during growth and development. To assess youth sport development guidelines using a 15-item framework across sport organizations and governing bodies in soccer, basketball, ice hockey, and swimming. English-language results from January 1, 2000, to December 31, 2018, from published sport organization guidelines and athlete development plans. Two investigators independently reviewed publications identified from sport organizations. A total of 23 guidelines were incorporated, including 5 general sport organizations and 18 sport-specific guidelines. Systematic review. Level 4. Two investigators independently identified all recommendations that fit within a predetermined rubric of recommendations encompassing 4 domains: Psychological Development/Approach, Physical Development/Load, Facilities and Resources, and Timing and Monitoring of Specialization. Sport-specific guidelines on volume were summarized. Sport organizations and sport-specific guidelines had consensus on 2 items out of the 15-item: emphasis on early skill development and access to well-trained coaches. While recommended by all sports organization, multisport participation was emphasized by 3 of 4 sports, excluding soccer. Volume recommendations were inconsistent between and within sports. No group proposed methods to monitor athlete well-being. This review highlights areas of agreement within sport organizations and governing bodies. Creating a framework to guide youth sport specialization may lead to specific and consistent guidelines.

Assessing Athletic Motor Skill Competencies in Youths: A Narrative Review of Movement Competency Screens

ABSTRACT Leading health organizations and long-term athletic development models have identified the need to develop movement competencies in children and adolescents. The athletic motor skill competencies (AMSCs) have been identified as key skills that form the foundations of all athletic movements. The AMSCs form an integral part of the long-term athletic development of youth, and improving these qualities should be central to coaches working with young individuals. Multiple movement competency screens assess some aspects of the AMSC spectrum, but there is no consensus regarding which screens may be most appropriate for a given cohort or coaching environment. This review provides an evaluation of the movement screens available to assess various AMSCs and in turn considers their reliability, feasibility, strengths, and weaknesses when used with youth populations.

Parkour-Based Activities in the Athletic Development of Youth Basketball Players.

While ideas from long-term athlete development (LTAD) models have been adopted and integrated across different sports, issues related to early specialization, such as increased risk of injury and burnout, are still common. Although some benefits may be associated with early sport specialization, sports sampling is purported to be a more effective approach to the long-term health and wellbeing of children. Furthermore, the concept of developing what are commonly referred to as “fundamental movement skills” (FMS) is central to the rationale for delaying single sports specialization. However, in place of sports sampling, it appears that the practice of strength and conditioning (S&C) has become a driving force behind developmental models for youth athletes, highlighted by the growing body of literature regarding youth athletic development training. In this perspective piece, we explore how conventional S&C practice may insufficiently develop FMS because typically, it only emphasizes a narrow range of foundational exercises that serve a limited role toward the development of action capabilities in youth athletic populations. We further discuss how this approach may limit the transferability of physical qualities, such as muscular strength, to sports-specific tasks. Through an ecological dynamics lens, and using basketball as an example, we explore the potential for parkour-based activity within the LTAD of youth basketball players. We propose parkour as a training modality to not only encourage movement diversity and adaptability, but also as part of an advanced strength training strategy for the transfer of conventional S&C training.

Revisiting Early Sport Specialization: What's the Problem?

Context:The assumed risks of early specialization in sport are well known, with several international consensus statements advising against specialization in early athlete development. However, there have been recent calls for more focused research in this area.Evidence Acquisition:Research evidence from several scientific disciplines (eg, sport psychology, sports medicine, human development) were synthesized to develop a framework for practitioners working with adolescent athletes.Study Design:Narrative review.Level of Evidence:Level 4.Results:There appear to be risks associated with a highly specialized approach to athlete training, but the mechanisms driving these effects are largely unknown. Greater attention to understanding these mechanisms would help mitigate risk and develop stronger policy for athlete development. Recommendations for program modifications are provided.Conclusion:Early specialization remains an important topic for researchers and practitioners working with youth and adolescent athletes. However, more work needs to be done to provide truly evidence-based recommendations for youth athlete training.

Genome-wide scans for signatures of selection in Mangalarga Marchador horses using high-throughput SNP genotyping

BackgroundThe detection of signatures of selection in genomic regions provides insights into the evolutionary process, enabling discoveries regarding complex phenotypic traits. In this research, we focused on identifying genomic regions affected by different selection pressures, mainly highlighting the recent positive selection, as well as understanding the candidate genes and functional pathways associated with the signatures of selection in the Mangalarga Marchador genome. Besides, we seek to direct the discussion about genes and traits of importance in this breed, especially traits related to the type and quality of gait, temperament, conformation, and locomotor system.ResultsThree different methods were used to search for signals of selection: Tajima’s D (TD), the integrated haplotype score (iHS), and runs of homozygosity (ROH). The samples were composed of males (n = 62) and females (n = 130) that were initially chosen considering well-defined phenotypes for gait: picada (n = 86) and batida (n = 106). All horses were genotyped using a 670 k Axiom® Equine Genotyping Array​ (Axiom MNEC670). In total, 27, 104 (chosen), and 38 candidate genes were observed within the signatures of selection identified in TD, iHS, and ROH analyses, respectively. The genes are acting in essential biological processes. The enrichment analysis highlighted the following functions: anterior/posterior pattern for the set of genes (GLI3, HOXC9, HOXC6, HOXC5, HOXC4, HOXC13, HOXC11, and HOXC10); limb morphogenesis, skeletal system, proximal/distal pattern formation, JUN kinase activity (CCL19 and MAP3K6); and muscle stretch response (MAPK14). Other candidate genes were associated with energy metabolism, bronchodilator response, NADH regeneration, reproduction, keratinization, and the immunological system.ConclusionsOur findings revealed evidence of signatures of selection in the MM breed that encompass genes acting on athletic performance, limb development, and energy to muscle activity, with the particular involvement of the HOX family genes. The genome of MM is marked by recent positive selection. However, Tajima’s D and iHS results point also to the presence of balancing selection in specific regions of the genome.

Normative data and percentile curves for long-term athlete development in swimming

ObjectivesTo provide normative data and establish percentile curves for long-course (50 m pool length) swimming events and to compare progression of race times longitudinally for the various swimming strokes and race distances. DesignDescriptive approach with longitudinal tracking of performance data. MethodsA total of 2,884,783 race results were collected from which 169,194 annual best times from early junior to elite age were extracted. To account for drop-outs during adolescence, only swimmers still competing at age of peak performance (21–26 years) were included and analyzed retrospectively. Percentiles were established with z-scores around the median and the Lambda-Mu-Sigma (LMS) method applied to account for potential skewness. A two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with repeated measure and between-subject factor was applied to compare race times across the various events and age groups. ResultsPercentile curves were established based on longitudinal tracking of race times specific to sex, swimming stroke, and race distance. Comparing performance progression, race times of freestyle sprint events showed an early plateau with no further significant improvement (p > 0.05) after late junior age (15–17 years). However, the longer the race distance, the later the race times plateaued (p < 0.05). Female swimmers generally showed an earlier performance plateau than males. Backstroke and freestyle showed an earlier performance plateau compared to the other swimming strokes (p < 0.05). ConclusionsPerformance progression varied between sex, swimming strokes, and race distances. Percentile curves based on longitudinal tracking may allow an objective assessment of swimming performance, help discover individual potentials, and facilitate realistic goal setting for talent development.

Coach's Perception of Parent's Attitudes in School-Age Sports.

The coach-parent relationship can significantly influence the sport participation, personal development, and sports performance of young athletes. This study aimed to investigate the coach’s perception of parent’s attitudes regarding competition attitude, the communication with the coach, and the environment during training sessions, taking into account the coaches’ sex, type of institution, or sport modality grouped into individual and collective sports. For this, a total of 159 coaches (22 females and 137 males) responded to the Questionnaire for Sports Coaches about their Opinion on the Attitudes of Fathers and Mothers in Sports (CTPMD). It analyses three factors: (1) competition attitude, (2) communication, and (3) environment. A Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was necessary to assess the model’s goodness of fit on each factor and to calculate the Cronbach’s Alpha, the average variance extracted, and the composite reliability to analyze the instrument reliability. Descriptive and inferential analysis was performed through the Mann-Whitney U and Rosenthal r statistical tests. The results showed significant differences in the competition attitude factor regarding type of institution (U = 1964.500; p-value < 0.001; r = 0.31), in favour of public institutions. There were also significant differences in the communication factor according to the coaches’ sex (U = 1112.000; p-value = 0.04; r = 0.16), with females’ coaches perceiving worse communication with parents than male coaches. This could be relevant because it negatively influences adherence to physical activity in children and adolescents, and therefore, their health.

Para Sport Development Experiences: Perspectives of Para Swimmers and Parents

This study examined para swimmers' athlete development experiences from the perspectives and reflections of athletes, and parents of athletes, with a focus on the constraints and challenges experienced. Guided by interpretive phenomenological analysis, 12 participants engaged in the interview process (seven parents and five athletes). Five themes were identified: fundamental skill development, personal connection, coaching, classification, and connecting with others "like me." Through a discussion of the differences in development experiences between the participants in this study and the current literature on athlete development, the authors highlight areas of concern in applying a non-para-specific athlete development model to para swimmers. This study identifies several areas of consideration in the future design of a para athlete development framework or model.

It's a Long Way to the Top: Determinants of Developmental Pathways in Paralympic Sport.

The literature suggests that the current athlete development models do not reflect the multifaceted developmental pathways in Paralympic sport. This study aimed to analyze how parasport athletes progress through developmental phases of an athletic career pathway by comparing differences in their trajectories based on the nature of the impairment (acquired or congenital), age, and sex. A total of 345 para-athletes representing 15 sports completed an online survey. Results showed that the developmental phases for athletes with acquired impairment are of shorter duration, taking 4.5 years to progress from the attraction to the elite phase, while athletes with congenital impairment take 6 years. Athletes with congenital impairment start in parasport approximately 8 years younger and win medals in international competitions 7 years earlier than athletes with acquired impairment. Insights gathered in this study have the potential to enhance further thinking toward the genesis of specific models of para-athlete development.

THE DIFFICULT PROBLEM OF GROWING ATHLETES AMONG WOMEN LIVING IN RURAL AREAS AND BORDER TERRITORIES OF THE REPUBLIC OF UZBEKISTAN

The article discusses the current problems of the development of female athletes in rural areas, remote and remote areas of the Republic of Uzbekistan.

The cognitive workload of air pistol shooters on the aiming task

Background: Pupil dilations of the eye are known to correspond to central cognitive processes. Pupil size variations have been used for many years as a window on the mind, and various pupillary features have been associated with a number of cognitive processes Aim: The aim of this study is to examine levels of cognitive workload that occur during the aiming task of air-pistol shooting athletes according to the change that takes place in the pupils. Methods: Eight right-handed skilled male shooters (4 elite and 4 novice) were recruited in this study. A total of 320 shots - 160 dry (unscored) shots and 160 live (scored) shots - were recorded with a mobile eye-tracking device. The obtained pupil data were subjected to biometric analysis. The athletes’ pupil sizes were determined with the independent samples t-test according to whether the shot made was scored or unscored and whether the athletes were elite or novice. The athletes’ pupil size values at the beginning and end of the shot were obtained using the paired samples t-test. Results: On completion of the shot, the sport shooters’ pupils dilated on average by 2.85 mm at a rate of 32.5% compared to the situation at shot onset. Moreover, novice shooters’ pupils dilated more when firing scored shots than when firing unscored shots. According to the research results, it can be said that sports shooters engage in intensive cognitive processes while aiming and trigger pulling immediately before firing the shot. Novice shooters engage in more intensive cognitive processes when firing scored shots than when firing unscored shots. Conclusion: According to the results of the research, it can be said that in the sport of air pistol shooting, giving priority to dry (unscored) shooting training can contribute positively to the development of novice athletes’ aiming task skills and cognitive load capacity. Keywords: Cognitive workload, cognitive processes, eye tracking, air pistol, shooting

Leadership, Mental Toughness, and Attachment Relationship in the World Beach Volleyball Context

For a long time, competitive sport has focused only on aspects related to performance. However, studies in social psychology have indicated the importance of focusing on the human development of athletes, which can occur through training environments that promote psychological well-being. Thus, this study aimed to analyze the impact of the coach-athlete attachment style, mediated by the coach’s leadership style, on the mental toughness of athletes in the world beach volleyball context. Elite beach volleyball athletes (n = 65), participants of the World Tour 2018, were part of the study. The Coach-Athlete Attachment Scale (CAAS), Mental Toughness Index (MTI) and Leadership Scale for Sport (LSS) were used as instruments. For data analyses we used polychoric correlation and a bias-corrected factor score path analysis. Path analysis showed that perceived secure attachment was positively associated with athletes’ mental toughness (0.24; 0.31; 0.25), but leadership styles did not mediate this relationship. For athletes with anxious attachment profiles, the perception of autocratic leadership style was associated with athletes’ mental toughness (1.01; p = 0.03), when their interaction style is focused on coaching-instruction. It concludes that the secure attachment relationship can bring increases in levels of athletic mental toughness, whereas for athletes with insecure attachment, the autocratic style was shown to be associated with the highest levels of mental toughness.

A retrospective investigation of the perceived influence of coaches, parents and peers on talented football players’ motivation during development

This study retrospectively explored perceptions of coach, parent and peer motivational influences across athlete development. Four investment stage football players (M age = 18.5 years, SD = 0.6) with an average of 13 (SD = 1.4) years footballing experience, and four of their parents, were interviewed to investigate their perceptions of coach, parent and peer motivationally-relevant influence during the athletes’ sampling, specializing and investment stages of development. Abductive thematic analysis of the interview transcripts identified five categories of perceived social agent motivationally-relevant influence that were consistent amongst each social agent and across each development stage. Each social agent was perceived by participants to play a role in each of the following motivationally-relevant categories of social agent influence: relationship factors; interpersonal interactions; support for development; support for participation; and feedback and evaluation. The categories were somewhat supportive and reflective of those outlined in other models. The results describe a complex and dynamic social environment within which players develop and provide insight into how this socio-motivational environment changes as athletes develop. Identified categories of perceived motivationally-relevant social agent influence may provide a framework for future research and allow practitioners to better determine athletes' motivational needs. Sport practitioners may use the findings from the study to ensure that athletes are gaining the breadth of motivational influences described in the categories within this study. Coach education might be developed or adapted to educate coaches on the types and importance of socio-motivational influences in sport. Lay Summary: Coaches, parents and peers were found to influence football players’ motivation in a range of ways, including the quality of their relationship with athletes, their positive and negative behaviors, the support they provided players’ development and participation in football, and the support they provided footballers to reflect on their experiences. The type of support that coaches, parents and peers provided to players changed as players progressed through different developmental stages, with coaches and peers becoming more important as athletes reached higher performance levels. Coaches and other sport practitioners might benefit from insight into the range of motivational influences that coaches, parents and peers can have in a football context in order to better develop and maintain athlete motivation.