Athletic Context Research Articles

Corrective Adjustment Procedures as a strategy to remove Relative Age Effects: Validation across male and female age-group long jumping

ObjectivesTo validate the application of Corrective Adjustment Procedures for removing Relative Age Effects in youth athletic contexts, this study estimated the longitudinal relationships between decimal age (chronological and relative) and performance in male and female long jumpers. Using trendlines, Corrective Adjustment Procedures were applied, and Relative Age Effect distributions associated with performance attainment were re-examined. DesignRetrospective longitudinal design examining competitive long-jump data between 2005 and 2019. MethodsIn Part I, participants were 689 junior Italian long jumpers (age range = 11.01–17.99 years; 56.6% females) who participated in ≥three events. Longitudinal modelling and regression equations quantified the sex-specific relationships between decimal age and long jump performance. In Part II, equations were utilised to adjust individual performance within an independent sample (N = 13,639; 50.1% females) of age-matched jumpers. Relative Age Effect distributions within attainment levels (i.e., Top 25–10%) were examined based on raw and correctively adjusted performance. ResultsIrrespective of sex, Relative Age Effects were prevalent across all age-groups with medium-large effect sizes at 12–17 (males and females) and 12–17 years (females) of age (Cramer's V range = 0.07–0.28). Relative Age Effect bias magnitude also increased with attainment level (i.e., Top 25–10%). Following Corrective Adjustment Procedure application, typical Relative Age Effects were removed with non-significant deviations in relative age distributions regardless of sex or age-group or attainment level (Top 25 or 10%). ConclusionsFindings provide efficacy for Corrective Adjustment Procedure application to remove Relative Age Effects across youth long jumping events. Corrective Adjustment Procedures suggest potential in improving performance evaluation, identification of technically skilled performers, and sporting experiences.

Timeout? The Epidemiology of Pediatric Sports Injuries During the COVID-19 Pandemic.

Background:The COVID-19 pandemic resulted in closure of schools and playgrounds while requiring social distancing, changes that likely affected youth sports participation. The purpose of this study was to identify changes in the epidemiology of pediatric sports injuries during the COVID-19 pandemic.Methods:This retrospective cohort study included patients between the ages of 4 and 18 years who presented to orthopaedic clinics within a single children's hospital network with an acute injury sustained during athletic activity between March 20, 2020, and June 3, 2020 (the strictest period of state-level shelter-in-place orders). These patients were compared with those within the same dates in 2018 and 2019. Chi square and Mann-Whitney U tests were used, as appropriate.Results:Significantly less sports injuries were seen during the pandemic (n = 257) compared with the same dates in 2018 (n = 483) and 2019 (n = 444) despite more providers available in 2020 (P < 0.001). During the pandemic, patients with sports injuries were younger (median age 11 versus 13 years, P < 0.001) and had less delay in presentation (median 5 versus 11 days, P < 0.001). A higher proportion were White (66.9% versus 47.7%, P < 0.001), privately insured (63.4% versus 48.3%, P < 0.001), and seen at a nonurban location (63.4% versus 50.2%, P < 0.001). Most sports injuries during the pandemic were fractures (83.7%). Although 71.4% of all injuries in the prepandemic period occurred in the context of formal sports, only 15.2% were sustained in a formal athletic context in 2020 (P < 0.001). The frequency of surgical treatment was higher during the pandemic (14.8% versus 7.8%, P = 0.001), mainly because most of these injuries were fractures requiring surgical intervention.Conclusions:Fewer sports injuries were seen in the outpatient setting during the COVID-19 pandemic, and most of these injuries were fractures and occurred outside of organized sports settings. Patients were more likely to be White, privately insured, and seen at a nonurban location.

Swimming Through Ambivalence: The Paradox of Vigilant Coping in Female College Athletes

Three decades of research into disordered eating in sports have revealed contradictory results, with athletes considered both at risk but also protected from eating problems. To contribute insight into the complexities of existing literature, this study examines how female college swimmers in the US experience food and their bodies in athletic, non-athletic, and digital media contexts. Drawing on 16 in- depth interviews, this study finds that these athletes experience contradictory ideals, especially in the domains of health and online self- presentation. When faced with such tensions, they often seek resolution through heightened discipline and attention towards controlling the body, a phenomenon that I call vigilant coping. While vigilant coping can provide some satisfaction and respite, it often exacerbates confusion and reproduces anxieties. As a result, a predominant strategy for resolving ambivalence becomes a source of additional distress around food and body. The women in this study show how athletic contexts contribute to the paradox of vigilant coping but also reveal creative ways of coping that go beyond vigilance. These findings are particularly important given the low success of disordered eating treatments and urgency towards improving preventative efforts.

Black male college athlete identity: A scoping review

Scholarship on college athlete identity has increased within recent decades; however, there remains a dearth of literature centred on identity and Black male college athletes. While athletic identity is often self and socially regarded as a dominant identity, this population also holds numerous identities, such as race, gender, sexual orientation, class, and being a student. This scoping review synthesizes 26 peer-reviewed pieces of scholarship that focus on Black male college athletes and identity. Thematic categories found in this literature include discussions of athletic identity, complexities and intersections of identity, United States (US) college and athletic context impacting identity salience, and shifting the narrative of Black male college athlete identity. This review concludes with future directions that encourage the increase in research regarding identity and Black male college athletes.

Humanitarian Athletic Participation and Identity Work.

Numerous studies examine youth purpose and volunteerism, but only few investigate how altruistic activities shape identity development within athletic contexts. Endurance-based humanitarian fundraising teams are becoming increasingly popular forms of volunteerism among adolescents and young adults in the United States, but little is known about their developmental role. Twenty-four participants (15–21 years of age; M = 17.42) were interviewed to identify the prominent themes that arose from their experiences while training for and participating in a marathon. A thematic analysis was used to determine the dominant themes that characterized the intersection of humanitarian marathon training and running with aspects of identity work. The majority of the comments of the participants were directly tied to their experiences in running the marathon. Four themes were identified including identity work, faith, purpose, and social connection. More so than exploring their possible selves, a consistent theme throughout the interview with the participants was what they learned about their current selves and the capacities they already possessed during their marathon experience.

Testosterone, Athletic Context, Oral Contraceptive Use, and Competitive Persistence in Women

Testosterone, Athletic Context, Oral Contraceptive Use, and Competitive Persistence in Women

Red shirt color has no effect on winning in European Soccer: Reanalysis of Attrill et al. (2008) of the English premier league and six additional European leagues

Attrill et al. (2008) conducted a far-reaching study in elite English soccer demonstrating in archival research that from 1946 to 2003 seasons, teams wearing red uniforms were more likely to win championships than teams in other uniform colors, won more at home and had a higher average league position (relative to cross-city rivals). Their study was one of only very few that extended the color-in-context theory (Elliot & maier, 2007) to team, ball-oriented long-duration sports. The current investigation returns to the red superiority hypothesis in professional soccer due to weaknesses in the original evidence for this hypothesis. We conducted two studies testing the red superiority hypothesis in professional soccer. In Study 1a, we first reanalyzed the original data and tested the strength of evidence in favor of the red superiority hypothesis. We then updated the English premier league data (1992–2018) and tested uniform color effects on game outcomes. In Study 2, we attempted to broaden the scope of Study 1 and increase statistical power by testing the red superiority effect during the last 20 years of six major European Soccer leagues (NOS Portugal, German Bundesliga, Dutch Eredivisie, Spanish la Liga, French Ligue 1, and the Italian Serie A). All three tests challenge the validity of the original findings and fail to detect uniform color effects at home play in professional soccer. In light of the current findings and a growing body of research in the field we call into question overall color effects in this athletic context.

Exercise Addiction in the Sports Context: What Is Known and What Is Yet to Be Known

Exercise addiction (EA) involves excessive concerns for exercise routines, an abusive practice, and the inability to control one’s own behavior, as well as the presence of psychological processes that are typical of behavioral addictions such as abstinence. EA is further associated with an alteration of the individual’s personal, social, and professional functioning and a higher risk for several pathologies, including physical injury, psychological distress, and eating disorders. The present work presents a narrative scoping review of the state of the art and the main findings of the research on EA, with a focus in the athletic population. The prevalence of EA risk, between 1 and 52% and up to 80% when co-occurring with eating disturbances, is also reviewed. Additionally, some of the explanatory models proposed to date and their power and limitations in terms of their capacity for a consensual operationalization and characterization of EA, and thus for the optimal exploration and management of this condition, are discussed. Finally, some deficiencies in the research on EA are noted which are to be addressed to successfully respond to the intervention and prevention needs that occur both in the general context of exercise-sports practice and the specific context of competitive athletes.

The Effect Of Three Techniques For Soft Tissue Mobilization On Softball Pitching Biomechanics

Soft tissue mobilization (STM) is commonly performed by athletic trainers in collegiate sports; it can be implemented in a variety of ways. How different STM techniques influence subsequent biomechanical function is unexamined. PURPOSE: To evaluate the effect of various STM techniques on windmill pitching kinematics in collegiate softball. METHODS: 10 Division 1 softball pitchers underwent 4 testing periods involving an STM session followed by mechanical evaluation of a windmill pitch using a Proteus device (Proteus Motion, USA). The different STM options were: active release technique (ART), cupping therapy (CT), instrumented-assisted mobilization (IAM), and a comparison group receiving no treatment (control). The STM methods were conducted in a random order with 48 hours separating each test. Immediately after STM, players performed 8 maximal-effort windmill pitches on Proteus (3 acclimation repetitions followed by 5 analyzed pitches). Proteus calculated power (watts), explosiveness (watts/sec), endurance (percent maintenance of power in serial repetitions), range of motion (ROM; distance traveled in 3D space), and consistency (replication of range of motion). Repeated measures ANOVAs evaluated differences in Proteus outputs in the different STM trials. RESULTS: Subjects were 19.4 ± 1.1 years old, height was 64.5 ± 5.5in, weight was 150.4 ± 15.3 lb, arm length was 67.1 ± 3.4in, and mean pitching experience was 5.2 ± 4.3 years. Proteus performances following the control treatment were: power of 30.8 ± 2.9, explosiveness of 27.3 ± 8.3, endurance of 90.4 ± 4.7, ROM of 6.4 ± 1.0, and consistency of 80.3 ± 10.5. ANOVA demonstrated non-significant patterns (p > 0.150 compared to control) in which the ART testing had the highest subsequent power (32.5 ± 4.2), explosiveness (29.2 ± 7.9), and consistency (81.0 ± 12.8), and IAM had the highest endurance (92.9 ± 3.7). CONCLUSIONS: In a small, pilot sample of 10 softball pitchers, no STM method emerged as superior to the others or to the control group. Being the first investigation of its kind, further analyses on larger samples and in diverse athletic contexts are warranted to identify possible performance aids available to athletic trainers.

Passion, grit and mindset of Iranian wrestlers: A socio-psychological approach

The study presents a socio-psychological analysis of the conventional psychological concept of passion, grit and mindset among Iranian elite wrestlers, along with exploring the associations of the aforementioned variables. We conducted a cross-sectional, correlational questionnaire survey among 124 international and national Iranian top male wrestlers and recruited 106 male and female Iranian university students as a control group to provide more rationale of the variables within the context. Passion Scale, Grit-S Scale and Theories of Intelligence Scale (TIS) were used to measure the variables. The wrestlers scored high on the passion, grit and growth mindset scales, higher than the controls. Further analysis indicated a positive association between passion, grit and growth mindset on wrestlers as a whole and the subgroups. There were, however, no differences in terms of the level of competency and achievement within the groups of wrestlers, which counters former findings. This research contributes valuable insights into how passion, grit and growth mindset, considering the interplay between individual agency and an apt social context, sustain athletes’ desire for tough training; motivate them to overcome a series of setbacks and challenging situations in order to meet further achievements in such a competitive sport. The research further provides insight into a distinctive sport culture and proposes how the socio-cultural context of athletes impacts their mentality and achievement.

A Comparison of Cardinal Gaze Speed between Major League Baseball Players, Amateur Prospects, and Non-athletes

PurposeSensorimotor variables have been shown to predict performance in professional baseball players. However, cardinal gaze speed in baseball players has received only limited attention. This study tested the hypothesis that the cardinal gaze speed in Major League Baseball (MLB) players would be faster than in amateur prospects and non-athletes.&#x0D; MethodSeventeen MLB athletes, 160 amateur prospects, and 128 non-athletes were tested using an eye-tracking test (i.e., the RightEye CGP test) designed to measure cardinal gaze speed.&#x0D; ResultsMLB players had significantly faster cardinal gaze speed than either amateur prospects or non-athletes. Moreover, there were significant differences in cardinal gaze speed across different directions. ConclusionsThis was the first study to examine the speed of gaze in the cardinal positions in an athletic context. The results highlight the significant difference in cardinal gaze speed between MLB players, amateur prospects, and non-athletes.

Adoecimento psíquico em atletas de alto rendimento: a importância da psicologia do esporte

O psicólogo do esporte auxilia indivíduos na preparação psicológica antes e após as competições, e a atuação do mesmo acontece visando a busca de bem-estar físico e psicológico dos atletas. Nesse sentido, o tema abordado neste artigo discute a importância do psicólogo no universo esportivo, no sentido de destacar a atuação deste profissional na vida de atletas de alto rendimento. O objetivo principal é discutir a importância da atuação do psicólogo do esporte no trabalho com atletas de alto rendimento. Trata-se de uma investigação inspirada na abordagem qualitativa, construída a partir de uma revisão bibliográfica e sistemática, que contou com a análise e a interpretação de dados científicos produzidos nos últimos anos por teóricos que discutem a temática aqui anunciada. Como conclusões, destaca-se que o psicólogo do esporte, cada vez mais, conquista espaço no ambiente esportivo por realizar importantes intervenções que auxiliam atletas e equipes de competições a compreenderem os entraves e, sobretudo, criar saídas e alternativas que transformam positivamente as dificuldades do cotidiano. Além disso, esse profissional pode previnir doenças psíquicas, pois ele atua de maneira a intervir no trabalho que envolve necessidades de resultados que, por vezes, ocorre sob pressão sofrida por atletas, o que pode levar ao adoecimento psíquico de tais sujeitos.

Construct validity of Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale in Brazilian Athletic Context

Objective: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the psychometric properties of the Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale in the athletic context of Brazil.&#x0D; Method: In total, 387 athletes participated in the study, 232 men and 155 women, with a mean age of 22.1+/-4.5 years, practitioners of team modalities in clubs in Southern Brazil. The construct validity was evaluated through exploratory Factorial Analyses with Oblimin Rotation and the factorial weight 0.3 was used to exclude items. Cronbach’s Alpha and Polychoric Correlation evaluated the internal variance consistency.&#x0D; Results: The Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale uploaded on 2 factors showed 61% of the variance of the construct, with factor 1 adding items about positive self-esteem and factor 2 about negative self-esteem. To confirm the internal consistency of the instrument, we performed polychoric correlation between the items on the scale. All items showed significant positive correlation above 0.3 (p&gt;0.05) confirming the good internal consistency of the questionnaire.&#x0D; Conclusion: This research identifies good psychometric properties of the Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale in the Brazilian sport context of athletes of team sports. The bifactorial structure was verified, agreeing with the original proposal, suggesting the separate score calculation of each factor on the self-esteem Scale.

I don't fit, so I blame you?—Influence of regulatory focus and fit on emotion generation and regulation in single and group context

AbstractPerson–environment interactions play a crucial role in the process of emotional experience. While Regulatory Focus Theory has been adopted to illustrate how some goal‐oriented parts of this process might shape by proposing a regulatory fit between individual and environmental characteristics, whether this fit not only implies feeling “right” but feeling “good” or at least cope better, has not been tested empirically. In this study, we extend earlier research on the influence of the regulatory fit to the generation and regulation of emotions. We additionally emphasize the role of the context, by integrating current work on group‐based emotion regulation in comparing single and group environments. We used a within‐subjects design, with 2 (situational focus) × 2 (single/group environment) levels. Thirty‐two male football players participated in one football‐specific task per level. Emotional experience and cognitive regulation strategies were measured after each. Multilevel regression showed, that a regulatory fit predicted more passive‐negative emotions in both the environments and more active‐negative emotions in the group environments. The Regulatory fit predicted stronger use of functional regulation strategies in the single but less in the group environment. Group membership predicted stronger use of group‐based regulation strategies and weaker use of other strategies—thus indicating further constraints and new ways to cope. We discuss the counter‐intuitive results regarding emotional experience in the light of the athletic context as well as theoretical accounts of regulatory fit and its role in the moderating motivational intensity and the value assignment. Results regarding the influence of group membership are integrated into current research and we highlight the directions for future research.

The impact of perceived trustworthiness on trust and commitment: a case of boosters in a university athletic programme

The purpose of this study was to develop the scale of organizational trustworthiness (SOT), which consists of perceived accountability, integrity and fairness, and examine theoretical relationships between the trustworthiness attributes and trust, commitment and donation intention in a college athletic programme context. The proposed model was tested using 549 donors of a college booster club in an athletic programme in Division 1 Power 5 conferences in the USA. The results of a confirmatory factor analysis and factor mixture analysis confirm the reliability and validity of the scale. The results of the simultaneous equations indicate that all three aspects of donors’ perceived trustworthiness significantly influence their trust. A donor’s commitment fully mediated the relationship between their trust and giving intention. This study makes theoretical contributions to donor behaviour literature by providing an expanded view of donors’ perceived trustworthiness of an organization and making meaningful implications for administrators of college athletics organizations.

A daily diary study of interpersonal emotion regulation, the social environment, and team performance among university athletes

Interpersonal emotion regulation (IER) refers to social interactions that are intended to improve or worsen the emotions of others (Niven et al., 2011), and IER has been associated with emotional and motivational outcomes for athletes (Tamminen et al., 2016). Qualitative findings suggest IER among teammates is associated with performance, and that it is also important to consider IER interactions within the context of athletes’ social environment (Campo et al., 2017; Palmateer & Tamminen, 2018). The purpose of this research was to quantitatively examine these proposed associations among a sample of 59 university team sport athletes over a 10-day period. Athletes completed measures of perceived esteem support (Freeman & Rees, 2009) and social cohesion (Eys et al., 2009), and they rated the extent to which they provided and received affect-improving or affect-worsening IER with teammates in the days prior to and following a competition. Piecewise multilevel models were used to model changes in IER before and after competition. Overall, athletes’ engagement in affect-worsening IER decreased in the days before competition, while providing and receiving affect-improving IER decreased in the days following competition. Esteem support moderated some of these trajectories of IER, and there were interactions between esteem support and competition outcome on the trajectories of IER: more supported athletes reported providing and receiving more affect-worsening IER before a loss. Esteem support and affect-worsening IER also interacted to predict the team’s competition outcome: among athletes who perceived more esteem support, decreases in the receipt of affect-worsening IER in the days before competition was predictive of the team winning their competition. Social cohesion did not moderate any of the associations between IER, time, and performance outcome. These results suggest that athletes’ daily IER exchanges among teammates and their perceptions of esteem support have implications for team performance.

#SportToo: Implications of and Best Practice for the #MeToo Movement in Sport

The #MeToo movement has brought long needed attention to the epidemic of sexual assault and sexual violence. In the world of sports, the need to prevent and address such acts requires individuals with training in clinical, forensic and sport psychology. These professionals must have particular understanding of the dynamics of sexual violence within the athletic and sport culture. This paper serves to highlight context-specific approaches to pertinent identification and treatment issues. An overview of sexual abuse victim and perpetrator identification will be offered. In addition to the introduction of risk assessment and recommendation of comprehensive prevention programming, treatment needs in the athletic context will be explored. Group-level interventions currently being utilized will be reviewed, recommended topic areas to be covered in protocols will be enumerated and suggestions for systemic and cultural change in the sport domain will be offered.

Sexual Assault on College Campuses: What Sport Psychology Practitioners Need to Know

Sexual assault is highly prevalent among the population of college students, which includes student-athletes. The context of athletics introduces unique risk factors related to alcohol consumption ...

LGBTQ + and ally youths’ school athletics perspectives: a mixed-method analysis

Authors employed a convergent mixed method study focused on lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ+) youths’ and allies’ (ages 13–18; n = 71) experiences in school athletics (e.g., physical education, after-school sports). Participants reported that they feel unsafe in school athletic contexts due to experiences of discrimination from their peers and inaction from athletic staff. Participants discussed a proclivity toward individual sports as opposed to team sports and also preferred to engage in physical activity outside of the school context. Analyses of mean differences highlight the marginalization that LGBTQ + youth and allies experience. School-based implications and future research directions are discussed.

Division-I Student-Athletes’ Affective and Cognitive Responses to Receiving Confirmation From Their Head Coach

Coach confirmation—a behavior that encompasses coaches’ recognition, endorsement, and acknowledgment of athletes—has been forwarded as an effective coaching behavior that redresses ineffective and antisocial patterns of coaching. Empirical evidence of its effectiveness, however, has been limited to athlete affect and based on data from retrospective samples of former high school athletes. This study addresses these limitations by exploring the effectiveness of coaches’ use of confirmation with collegiate student-athletes and considers its influence on their satisfaction with coaches and sport, competitiveness, and cognitive learning. Data obtained from 177 Division-I student-athletes revealed that coaches’ use of challenge increases student-athletes’ satisfaction, motivation, competitiveness, and learning, whereas the use of acceptance only determines satisfaction. These findings demonstrate that confirmation is an effective coaching behavior, its dimensions function independently, and challenge best fulfills the multidimensional nature of coaching effectiveness. The implications of this data reveal that confirmation theory functions uniquely within the athletic context, and coach effectiveness is largely determined by the implementation of strategies and efforts to refine skill sets and assist in development.