Endurance Sport Athletes Research Articles

The difference in risk of chronic pulmonary disease morbidity and mortality between former elite athletes and ordinary men in Finland

The impact of a history of competitive sports on later smoking behaviour and occurrence of chronic pulmonary diseases is poorly known. We investigated how a history of elite level sports predicted later pulmonary disease morbidity and mortality. Chronic pulmonary disease incidence was assessed from national hospital and cause-of-death registers from 1970 to 2015 among Finnish male former elite athletes (n = 2078) and matched controls (n = 1453) alive in 1970 (mean age 45.0 years). Hazard ratios (HRs) were calculated by Cox proportional hazards model. In 1985, cohort members reported on their smoking habits, engagement in physical activity/sports and physician-diagnosed chronic diseases. The risk of any chronic pulmonary disease or death was lower among former athletes than controls (age-adjusted HR 0.61; 95% CI 0.46–0.83). The risk was significantly lower among endurance (HR 0.54), mixed (HR 0.61), and power sports athletes (HR 0.66) compared to controls. The age- and smoking pack-year-adjusted HRs of incident diseases from the time of the 1985 questionnaire until the end of follow-up in former athletes was 0.58 (95% CI 0.37–0.93) compared to controls. In 1985 athletes smoked less and their cumulative smoking quantity was lower than that of controls. Former athletes were more physically active and self-reported less physician-diagnosed emphysema. The risk of any chronic pulmonary disease was lower among former athletes than controls even after considering smoking status and cumulative smoking quantity. Ability to compete at the highest level of sports in young adulthood associated with a reduced risk of pulmonary disease in later life.

Features of nutrition for athletes in cyclic endurance sports

The number of different endurance sporting events is increasing annually. In the general population the number of participants in such competitions as marathon running, road racing, open water swimming and triathlon is growing. In this regard, much attention is paid to the scientific study of various aspects of nutrition as a factor in energy synthesis in muscle tissues during prolonged physical activity. The review summarizes an analysis of the nutritional data of athletes of various sports who have a long and extra-long physical activity. Information on the role of energy macronutrients (carbohydrates and fats) in the biochemical processes in the organism of athletes during long-term training and competition activities is given. The effectiveness of their consumption to improve performance in cyclic sports during prolonged exercise is analyzed. Various options for using certain compositions to improve endurance indicators, as well as possible undesirable consequences of the use of some nutrients by athletes-styers, are considered in the article.

The effect of endurance training in salivary flow and pH

Introduction: Endurance sports popularity has been going among recreation practitioners [1]. It is known that salivary flow and pH can be influenced by sports practice due to sports drinks intake during the training. These individuals are also more exposed to dehydration (increase in water loss in sweat but also by respiratory system diffusion) [2,3]. The aim of this work was to quantify the Stimulated Salivary Flow Rate (TFSE) and the salivary pH in endurance sports athletes before and after sports practice. Materials and methods: This transversal study had been approved by Egas Moniz Ethical Committee (process number 531). The convenience sample (n = 65) consisted of female and male athletes which had consent their participation in the study. The stimulated saliva collection procedure had taken place before (T0) and after (T1) the training, in the morning, and the total volume had been calculated in order to evaluate the Rate of Stimulated Salivary Flow (TFSE). Simultaneously the salivary pH had been measured using a portable potentiometer in T0 and T1. The collected data had been analyzed through descriptive statistics and using frequency, dispersion and central tendency models. Results: 55% of the individuals were male, in average 31.5 years old (±0.71 anos). The average TFSE in T0 was 2.17 mL/min (±0.6 mL/min) and in T1 was 1.5 mL/min (±0.58 mL/min). The average pH in T0 was 7.4 (±0,2) and in T1 was 7 (±0.4). Discussion and conclusions: In spite the TFSE had decreased after training, these measures are still within the considered normal range. This result reflects that the practice of endurance sports in our sample did not change in an acute and significant way the stimulated salivary flow rate. The decrease in pH values was not significant. Other studies had shown that the salivary flow and pH can be decreased depending also on the beverage intake during the session [4].

Dental caries incidence in a sample of endurance sports athletes

Introduction: The Sports Dental Medicine is a preventive multidisciplinary and specific area which allows oral health and the treatment of oral cavity diseases that can interfere with physical performance [1]. Dental caries are a chronic disease with high prevalence and results from the dental demineralization in acidic environment initiated by micro-organisms [2]. In endurance sports it is very common to increase the intake of carbohydrates which are essential for an adequate performance [3]. This high intake of carbohydrates may lead to a decrease in oral pH, which in turn can promote enamel demineralization, exposing the individual to higher cariogenic risk [4]. The main goal of the present investigation was to estimate the prevalence of dental caries in endurance sports athletes. Materials and methods: This transversal and observational study was approved by Egas Moniz Ethical Committee (process number 531). The sample (n = 65) consisted of male and female individuals and after given informed consent, the type of exercise and feeding practiced by the participants was recorded as well as an oral exam to observe the decayed, missing and filled index (DMF). The cariogenic risk was obtained using the software Cariogram ®. Collected data were analysed through descriptive statistics measures using frequency, dispersion and central tendency models. Results: In the sample of 65 athletes, 55% were male and were 31.5 years old (±0.71 years). The CPOD was 5.3 (±2.12). The results showed that 66% of the athletes had high risk of caries, 11% had a moderate risk of caries, 23% had a low risk of caries. In the sample, 52% had caries and a round 32% had loss at least one tooth due to caries. The athletes had in average 45g of carbohydrates (±28 g) within which 19g (±7.7 g) were sugars just from dietary supplements. Discussion and conclusions: It was possible to observe a high risk of caries in this sample of endurance athletes as well as a considerable incidence of this pathology. However, we did not find a relation between the risk / incidence of caries and the consumption of supplements and / or sugars and carbohydrates. We suggest the continuation of this study with the objective of increasing the study sample to confirm the results.

Training Volume and Intensity of Physical Activity among Young Athletes: The Health Promoting Sports Club (HPSC) Study

Both training volume and overall physical activity (PA) play a role in young athletes’ sports performance and athletic development. The purpose of this study was to describe the training volume and PA of young athletes in endurance, aesthetics, ball games, and power sports. Questionnaire data (n = 671) were obtained from 15-year-old Finnish athletes on sports participation, along with accelerometer data (n = 350) assessing the amount and intensity of their PA. The athletes’ mean weekly training volume was 11 h 41 min. Objectively assessed PA amounted to 4 h 31 min daily, out of which 1 h 31 min was at a level of moderate-to-vigorous intensity (MVPA). Among 24% of the athletes, the weekly training volume (in hours) exceeded the recommended level of age-in-years, which might increase their risk of sports injuries. At the same time, one in six athletes (16%) did not—on average—reach the internationally recommended threshold level of at least 60 minutes of MVPA per day. Compared to girls, boys averaged 2.5 more hours of training per week, and had 21 more minutes of MVPA per day. Moreover, boys had a higher goal orientation than girls, with 52% of the boys and only 29% of the girls focused on success at adult level. Although total training volume and PA did not differ among sports types, there were differences in training forms, and in the proportions of MVPA. The young athletes were found to vary greatly in training forms, training volumes, MVPA, and goal orientation; hence, training should be planned individually, both for team sports and individual sports.

A cross-sectional study to assess prevalence of Orthorexia Nervosa among endurance sports athletes.

A cross-sectional study to assess prevalence of Orthorexia Nervosa among endurance sports athletes.

Influence Of 200 mm Hg Occlusion Pressure on Arterial Blood Flow in Skeletal Muscles and Physical Working Capacity

Research background and hypothesis. Different weights, resistance, scope of work, rest periods, frequency, and performance velocity are used to increase strength in training sessions. The traditional training facility with high resistance can be replaced by low resistance while limiting muscle blood flow. Hypothesis: a single 15-minute 200 mm Hg occlusion pressure can affect physical working capacity and blood flow intensity.Research aim. was to analyze changes in the intensity of the calf muscle arterial blood flow and physical working capacity with and without 200 mm Hg pressure occlusion. Research methods. were dynamometry, ergometry, venous occlusive plethysmography. The control group included six and experimental group – 12 male athletes in endurance sports. In both groups we recorded arterial blood flow at rest and after 75% of maximum voluntary contraction force (MVC) physical work lifting a weight until complete fatigue. Between the first and second physical workloads in the experimental group we applied 15 min occlusion with 40 mm wide cuff in the groin area.Research results. During the physical load in the control group, arterial blood flow significantly increased, and during recovery it did not reach to baseline. In the experimental group arterial blood flow significantly increased and during recovery it did not reach the baseline. Blood flow intensity both the first and the second physical loads altered analogically. Before the second physical load in the experimental group, 200 mm Hg occlusion had a negative effect on skeletal muscle working capacity compared with the passive rest in the control group.Discussion and conclusions. Occlusion of 200 mm Hg in the groin area reduces arterial blood flow intensity in calf skeletal muscles. Immediately after the removal of 200 mm Hg occlusion, arterial blood flow intensity increases and then decreases to its original value. 200 mm Hg occlusion pressure reduces blood flow intensity in the skeletal muscles. Before the second physical load, 200 mm Hg occlusion decreases skeletal muscle working capacity compared with passive rest in the control group.Keywords: occlusion, physical working capacity, arterial blood flow.

Prevalence of Indicators of Low Energy Availability in Elite Female Sprinters.

Low energy availability (LEA), and subsequent relative energy deficiency in sport, has been observed in endurance, aesthetic, and team sport athletes, with limited data on prevalence in athletes in short-burst activities such as sprinting. We examined prevalence of signs and symptoms of LEA in elite female sprinters at the start of the training season (PRE), and at the end of a 5-month indoor training period (POST). Four of 13 female sprinters (31%) presented at PRE testing with at least one primary (amenorrhea, low bone mineral density, low follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, or estradiol, resting metabolic rate ≤29kcal/kg fat-free mass, Low Energy Availability in Females Questionnaire score ≥8) and one secondary indicator of LEA (fasting blood glucose <4mmol/L, free triiodothyronine <3.5pmol/L, ferritin <25μg/L, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol >3.0mmol/L, fasting insulin <20pmol/L, low insulin-like growth factor-1, systolic blood pressure <90mmHg, and/or diastolic blood pressure <60mmHg). At POST, seven out of 13 athletes (54%) presented with at least one primary and one secondary indicator of LEA, three of whom had also presented with indicators of LEA at PRE. Five out of 13 (39%) athletes had previous stress fracture history, though this was not associated with current indicators of LEA (PRE: r = .52, p = .07; POST: r = -.07, p = .82). In conclusion, elite female sprinters may present with signs and symptoms of LEA, even after off-season rest. Medical and coaching staff should be aware of the signs and symptoms of LEA and relative energy deficiency in sport and should include appropriate screening and intervention strategies when working with sprinters.

Antecedents of Exercise Dependence in Ultra-Endurance Sports: Reduced Basic Need Satisfaction and Avoidance-Motivated Self-Control.

Initiating and maintaining sports and exercise behavior are usually discussed in terms of strategies for promoting health. In the present study, we analyzed a sample of extreme endurance sport athletes and set out to predict exercise addiction, which is a facet of a sport-related health risk. We therefore draw on self-determination theory (Deci and Ryan, 1985, 2000), according to which low basic psychological need satisfaction can lead to excessive compensatory behavior. We aim to disentangle the effects of need satisfaction in the activity itself (exercising) and outside the activity (work/leisure) on exercise addiction. Furthermore, we propose anxious self-motivation as a mediator and tested whether it links low basic need satisfaction with exercise dependence. A correlational study with 323 multi-triathlon athletes confirmed our hypothesis that need satisfaction in work/leisure (but not in sports) is negatively related to exercise addiction. Furthermore, only need for competence in both domains (sport, work/leisure) is associated with anxious self-motivation. Mediation models showed that low competence satisfaction leads to anxious self-motivation that in turn predicts exercise addiction. The results are discussed critically in terms of their practical and theoretical implications for promoting health through sport and exercise.

The prevalence and severity of health problems in youth elite sports: A 6-month prospective cohort study of 320 athletes.

Little is known regarding the overall health of youth elite athletes. Our aim was to describe the prevalence and severity of health problems in a cohort of youth elite athletes representing a variety of endurance, team, and technical sports. Elite sport athletes (N=260, 16.2years) from different Sport Academy High Schools in Norway, and a group of their teammates (N=60, 16.4years) attending regular high schools, were included in the study. The Oslo Sports Trauma Research Centre (OSTRC) questionnaire on health problems was used to self-report injuries and illnesses for 26weeks. At any given time, an average of 43% [95% CI: 37%-49%] of the elite sport athletes had some form of health problem and 25% [20%-31%] had substantial health problems. The prevalence of health problems was similar between the elite team sport athletes and their teammates, except for substantial injuries (22% [16%-30%] vs 10% [5%-20%]). Endurance sport athletes reported more illnesses (23% [15%-35%]) than technical and team sport athletes (10% [5%-20%] and 8% [4%-14%]). In contrast, technical and team sport athletes reported more injuries (36% [95% CI: 25-48] and 37% [95% CI 29-45]) compared to endurance sport athletes (15% [8%-25%]). The total impact of health problems was roughly split in thirds between overuse injuries (37%), acute injuries (34%), and illnesses (30%). This is the first prospective study to present self-reported injury and illness data in a large heterogeneous group of youth elite athletes, documenting a substantial impact of both injuries and illnesses on the health of this population.

Characterization and Detection of Erythropoietin Fc Fusion Proteins Using Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry.

Erythropoietin Fc (EPO-Fc) fusion proteins are potential drug candidates that have been designed for the treatment of anemia in humans by stimulating erythrocyte production. Such compounds can be considered performance-enhancing agents that may be used by athletes in endurance sports. This study describes the primary structure of commercially available EPO-Fc based on comprehensive liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (LC-MS) analysis. A bottom-up approach and the intact molecular weight (MW) measurement of deglycosylated protein and its IdeS proteolytic fractions was used to determine the amino acid sequence of EPO-Fc. Using multiple proteases, peptides covering unknown fusion breakpoints (spacer peptides) were identified. We demonstrated that "spacer peptides" can be used in the determination of EPO-Fc fusion proteins in biological samples using common LC-tandem MS methods.

Compete or rest? Willingness to compete hurt among adolescent elite athletes

ObjectiveTraining and competing despite underlying health problems is a common social practice in sport. Adolescent elite athletes are particularly vulnerable to possible health consequences of this risky behavior due to their very sensitive developmental stage. Conceptualizing this phenomenon of playing hurt as sickness presenteeism, and taking the concept of absence/presence legitimacy into account, this paper analyzes the propensity of adolescent elite athletes to compete in the face of health problems. The central aim is to empirically identify characteristics of elite sport subcultures which affect athletes’ willingness to compete hurt (WCH). Materials & methodsBased on a comprehensive sample of 1138 German elite adolescent athletes from all Olympic sports (14–18 years), the paper applies classification tree analysis to analyze the social and individual determinants of the WCH. ResultsDeterminants on three hierarchical levels were identified, including type of sport, perceptions of social pressure, coach's leadership style and athletes' age. The group with the highest WCH were athletes from technical sports who have a coach with an autocratic leadership style. Second was athletes from ball games, and those in aesthetic and weight-dependent sports, aged between 17 and 18 years old. The lowest mean WCH-score, by some distance, occurred amongst the group of endurance and power sports athletes who experienced no direct social pressure to play hurt. ConclusionsThe findings enhance our understanding of absence/presence legitimacy in highly competitive social contexts and contribute to the development of more effective target-group-specific health prevention programs for young athletes.

Evidence-Based Prerequisites and Precursors of Athletic Talent: A Review.

Extensive findings related to nature and nurture in determining athletic talent (AT) have been reviewed. Available data demonstrate the important contribution of hereditary factors as well as the crucial importance of environmental prerequisites for identifying and developing AT. Recent publications provide examples of contemporary approaches intended to solve the problem of how to discover and nurture AT. A number of cross-sectional and longitudinal studies highlighted possibilities of revealing a predisposition to certain sports among youthful prospects, but were unable to predict attainment of world-class status. Data pertaining to Olympic champions indicate that their superiority compared with other elite athletes is determined by high intrinsic motivation, determination, dedication, persistence, and creativity. These salient manifestations of personality could be successfully recognized even in the initial stages of their preparation, where exceptionally gifted individuals manifested high learnability and a high rate of athletic improvement. Moreover, future champions were characterized by an exceptional attitude to training and a willingness to perform more voluminous and high-quality training routines. Exceptionally talented athletes in endurance, power, and combat sports attained world-class status after 4-7years of specialized preparation, accumulating 3000-7000h of purposeful training. This stands in contradiction to Ericsson's theory of deliberate practice and the 10-year rule. In contrast, Olympic artistic gymnastics champions attained world-class status following an average of 9.7years of specialized preparation, accumulating an average of 8918h of specialized training. Apparently, the theory of 10,000h of deliberate practice and the 10-year rule are selectively applicable to highly coordinative esthetic sports but not to general preparation trends in endurance, power, and combat sports.

Use of Alcohol and Alcohol-Related Morbidity in Finnish Former Elite Athletes.

The effect of a history of competitive sports on later use of alcohol and occurrence of alcohol-related diseases is poorly known. We investigated how a history of elite level sports was associated with alcohol consumption in middle-age and with alcohol-related morbidity and mortality. The occurrence of alcohol-related diseases and deaths were followed using national registers from 1970 to 2008 among Finnish male former elite athletes (n = 2202) and matched controls (n = 1403) alive in 1970 (mean age = 45.1 yr). Hazard ratios were calculated by Cox proportional hazards model. In 1985, surviving participants questionnaire-reported their alcohol consumption and engagement in physical activity/sports. The risk of any alcohol-related diseases or deaths did not differ between former athletes and controls (hazard ratio = 0.93, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.73-1.20, P = 0.59), although the risk was higher among both combat sports athletes and weightlifters compared with endurance sports athletes, shooters or jumpers, and hurdlers (P < 0.05). In 1985, athletes consumed more alcohol (417 g·month, 95% CI = 386-447) compared with controls (397 g·month, 95% CI = 355-441) (P < 0.05). Consumption was lower among endurance sports athletes than among controls (P < 0.05). Team sports athletes consumed more alcohol (P < 0.05), especially beer (P < 0.01), compared with other athletes and controls. Athletes no longer engaged in leisure-time sports consumed more alcohol than those who continued to be physically active (P < 0.05). Overall, former athletes reported higher alcohol consumption than controls. There was no difference in alcohol-related morbidity, but the risk varied between different sports groups. Alcohol consumption after top sports career was greater if participation in leisure-time sports was discontinued.

Macronutrient Intakes in 553 Dutch Elite and Sub-Elite Endurance, Team, and Strength Athletes: Does Intake Differ between Sport Disciplines?

Web-based 24-h dietary recalls and questionnaires were obtained from 553 Dutch well-trained athletes. The total energy and macronutrient intake was compared between discipline-categories (endurance, team, and strength) within gender, and dietary inadequacy, i.e., too low or high intakes, according to selected recommendations and guidelines, was evaluated by applying a probability approach. On average, 2.83 days per person were reported with a mean energy intake of 2566–2985 kcal and 1997–2457 kcal per day, for men and women, respectively. Between disciplines, small differences in the mean intake of energy and macronutrients were seen for both men and women. Overall, 80% of the athletes met the suggested lower-limit sport nutrition recommendation of 1.2 g·kg−1 of protein per day. The carbohydrate intake of 50%–80% of athletes was between 3 and 5 g·kg−1 bodyweight, irrespective of the category of their discipline. This can be considered as low to moderate, in view of their daily total exercise load (athletes reported on average ~100 min per day). In conclusion, only small differences in the mean energy and macronutrient intake between elite endurance, strength, and team sport athletes, were found. The majority of the athletes were able to meet the generally accepted protein recommendation for athletes, of 1.2 g·kg−1. However, for most athletes, the carbohydrate intake was lower than generally recommended in the existing consensus guidelines on sport nutrition. This suggests that athletes could either optimize their carbohydrate intake, or that average carbohydrate requirements merit a re-evaluation.

Макро- и микроэлементный статус организма спортсменов циклических видов спорта

Макро- и микроэлементный статус организма спортсменов циклических видов спорта

Influence of Prior Intense Exercise and Cold Water Immersion in Recovery for Performance and Physiological Response during Subsequent Exercise.

Athletes in intense endurance sports (e.g., 4000-m track cycling) often perform maximally (~4 min) twice a day due to qualifying and finals being placed on the same day. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate repeated performance on the same day in a competitive setting (part A) and the influence from prior intense exercise on subsequent performance and physiological response to moderate and maximal exercise with and without the use of cold water immersion (CWI) in recovery (part B). In part A, performance times during eight World championships for male track cyclists were extracted from the qualifying and final races in 4000-m individual pursuit. In part B, twelve trained cyclists with an average (±SD) ⩒O2-peak of 67 ± 5 mL/min/kg performed a protocol mimicking a qualifying race (QUAL) followed 3 h later by a performance test (PT) with each exercise period encompassing intense exercise for ~4 min preceded by an identical warm-up period in both a control setting (CON) and using cold water immersion in recovery (CWI; 15 min at 15°C). Performance was lowered (P < 0.001) from qualification to finals (259 ± 3 vs. 261 ± 3 s) for the track cyclists during World championships in part A. In part B, mean power in PT was not different in CWI relative to CON (406 ± 43 vs. 405 ± 38 W). Peak ⩒O2 (5.04 ± 0.50 vs. 5.00 ± 0.49 L/min) and blood lactate (13 ± 3 vs. 14 ± 3 mmol/L) did not differ between QUAL and PT and cycling economy and potassium handling was not impaired by prior intense exercise. In conclusion, performance is reduced with repeated maximal exercise in world-class track cyclists during 4000-m individual pursuit lasting ~4 min, however prior intense exercise do not appear to impair peak ⩒O2, peak lactate, cycling economy, or potassium handling in trained cyclists and CWI in recovery does not improve subsequent performance.

Aerobic Capacity Characteristic of Lithuanian Endurance Sports Athletes

Aerobic capacity indices of the athletes, practicing aerobic endurance sports, are rather high. Athletes, practicing aerobic endurance sports, are able to demonstrate great maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max) and ability to keep it for a long time. Scientific evidence proves a close correlation between VO2max and sport results in endurance sports, as well as between VO2max and aerobic reactions. Thus, VO2max serves as a direct and complex index to reflect maximal possibilities of blood respiratory systems functional capacities and muscles ability to use it. VO2max is under influence by many factors: maximal lungs ventilation, blood composition, values of hemoglobin and iron in blood, elasticity of blood vessels, capillary density of skeletal muscles, number of mitochondria in muscles and their activeness, as well as amount of oxidation ferments and their activeness. Dynamics of VO2max is determined by genetic factors and the content of training session. Establishment of individual VO2max values is important in investigation process of athletes due to information it provides on the level of aerobic capacity and endurance. Overview of literature sources highlights a rather wide scientific concern on aerobic capacity exploration in various endurance sports athletes. Nevertheless, research data on athletes’ aerobic capacity longitudinal investigation, as well as on VO2max change in Lithuanian athletes during the last 25 years are lacking. The aim of the research was to summarize the level of maximal oxygen consumption, which serves as the main index of aerobic capacity for Lithuanian elite endurance sports athletes, and to compare it with characteristic to different sports model indices, provided in literature sources. 22 male and 14 female road cyclists, 20 male and 9 female skiers, 17 male and 11 female rowers, 15 male and 8 female biathlon athletes, 14 male kayak and canoe rowers, 8 male pentathlon athletes, 9 male racewalkers and 2 male swimmers participated in the research. Indices of the athletes’ height and weight were recorded. Aerobic capacity of the athletes used to be established by gas analyzer Oxycon Mobile (Germany). Mathematical statistics was applied for data processing. Arithmetical mean, standard deviation and mean error were calculated. VO2max determines ability of an athlete to maintain speed and to perform great aerobic work. Degree of VO2max increase during training session depends on personal training condition level, as well as on intensity and duration of exercises. According to the data of our longitudinal researches, the greatest correspondence to elite athletes’ VO2max model characteristics, among the other endurance sports representatives, is demonstrated by Lithuanian male modern pentathlon athletes, female cyclists (including four World champions), and female rowers. Close approach to model characteristics in charge was demonstrated by male cyclists and kayak rowers, while skiers, biathlon athletes, long and short distance runners were the furthest from model VO2max level. Overview of the results, demonstrated by the most capacious Lithuanian endurance sports athletes, shows that maximal oxygen consumption of the athletes – numerous Olympic Games, World and European Championships and other international events winners – is great and matches the requirements for elite athletes. Keywords: aerobic endurance, athletes, maximal oxygen consumption. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15823/sm.2016.21

Knowledge, Attitudes and Practices on Hydration and Fluid Replacement among Endurance Sports Athletes in National University of Malaysia (UKM)

The aim of this study was to determine knowledge, attitudes and practices on hydration and fluid replacement among endurance sports athletes in Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM). This study was also to identify the relationship among these parameters. A total of 80 UKM endurance sports athletes were involved in this study. Data collection was conducted using anthropometric measurements and questionaires. Anthropometric measurements included height, weight and body composition using bioimpedance method. Socio-demographic information, hydration knowledge, attitudes and practices were collected using questionnaires. The mean age of athletes was 22.0±2.6 years. The mean score for knowledge, attitudes and practices of subjects towards hydration was 74.1±10.1, 60.9±20.3 and 76.1±14.6%, respectively with higher scores indicating positive hydration knowledge, attitudes and practices. Knowledge did not show a significant correlation with practices (r = 0.126, p>0.05) but significant correlation with attitudes (r = 0.285, p 0.05). Only the mean score of knowledge was significantly different between male and female (p<0.05). Improvement of hydration knowledge, attitudes and practices is the most relevant step to ensure the hydration level of athletes is at its optimum level during training and competition. The results of this study identify specific areas of education for athletes with regard to hydration.

Extreme Variation of Nutritional Composition and Osmolality of Commercially Available Carbohydrate Energy Gels.

The provision of exogenous carbohydrate (CHO) in the form of energy gels is regularly practiced among endurance and team sport athletes. However, in those instances where athletes ingest suboptimal fluid intake, consuming gels during exercise may lead to gastrointestinal (GI) problems when the nutritional composition of the gel is not aligned with promoting gastric emptying. Accordingly, the aim of the current study was to quantify the degree of diversity in nutritional composition of commercially available CHO gels intended for use in the global sports nutrition market. We surveyed 31 product ranges (incorporating 51 flavor variants) from 23 brands (Accelerade, CNP, High5, GU, Hammer, Maxim, Clif, USN, Mule, Multipower, Nectar, Carb- Boom, Power Bar, Lucozade, Shotz, TORQ, Dextro, Kinetica, SiS, Zipvit, Maxifuel, Gatorade and Squeezy). Gels differed markedly in serving size (50 ± 22 g: 29-120), energy density (2.34 ± 0.7 kcal/g: 0.83-3.40), energy content (105 ± 24 kcal: 78-204), CHO content (26 ± 6 g: 18-51) and free sugar content (9.3 ± 7.0 g: 0.6-26.8). Most notably, gels displayed extreme variation in osmolality (4424 ± 2883 mmol/kg: 303-10,135) thereby having obvious implications for both GI discomfort and the total fluid intake likely required to optimize CHO delivery and oxidation. The large diversity of nutritional composition of commercially available CHO gels illustrate that not all gels should be considered the same. Sports nutrition practitioners should therefore consider the aforementioned variables to make better-informed decisions regarding which gel product best suits the athlete's specific fueling and hydration requirements.