Asymmetric Warfare Research Articles

The Role of AI in Hybrid Warfare: A Case Study of Pakistan's Cybersecurity Landscape

Technological advancements driven by artificial intelligence (AI) impact social, economic, and military sectors. This research paper explores the relationship between AI and cybersecurity in hybrid warfare. While AI boosts economic development and social betterment, its militarization poses significant risks, especially in asymmetric warfare, where AI-guided attacks can undermine targeted states' economies, infrastructure, and institutions. The paper emphasizes the role of neural network technologies in cyber operations and defense strategies. The absence of legal norms for AI in military actions exacerbates the threat of cyber-terrorism. Focusing on Pakistan's weak cyberinfrastructure, the paper highlights the challenges and opportunities for nuclear-armed states. To strengthen the argument this study implies the case study of Pakistan which faces serious cyber-attacks and cyber operations. Pakistan is known as a theater of Hybrid warfare. So these cyber-attacks and other hybrid strategies can be used against Pakistan to paralyze it.

Asymmetric conflict games with an extremist

This paper extends the conflict game of Baliga and Sjöström (2012) by allowing for an asymmetry between players. We demonstrate that (i) a player with a greater net gain from playing a hawkish action is more likely to play a hostile action and thereby the risk of war increases with it, and that (ii) an extremist cannot manipulate the conflict via cheap-talk message whenever the properties of actions are asymmetric between the players.

Archaeological Insights into Asymmetrical Warfare on the Queensland Frontier

Historiographic debate in Australia over whether or not the asymmetrical conflicts between Indigenous and non-Indigenous peoples in the colonial period can be characterized as “war” remains unresolved, largely because most such events did not involve the traditional military. In this regard the situation in Queensland merits special attention, since much of the conflict in that colony from 1848 onward was conducted by a particular government paramilitary organization: the Queensland Native Mounted Police (NMP). In trying to understand the operations of this force, we adopt KOCOA terrain analysis, coupled with the forensic analysis of firing pin impressions on discharged Snider cartridge primers, to visualize how features around NMP camps affected and contributed to the use of firearms within these spaces. Given the well-recognized nexus between tactics of hunting and warfare, we argue that it is through the lens of training (both as hunters and soldiers) that we can best understand the Indigenous troopers of the NMP, as well as the strategies and tactics applied by the Queensland NMP in the context of the asymmetrical violence that characterized the Australian frontier.

The New Face of Terrorism: Global and National Challenges

In the contemporary landscape, terrorism has metamorphosed into a multifaceted and dynamic threat, manifesting in diverse forms on both global and national fronts. This paper investigates the intricacies of this evolving phenomenon, shedding light on its new face amidst shifting geopolitical paradigms and technological advancements. Through an exploration of the complex interplay between state and non-state actors, as well as the proliferation of diverse ideologies, it elucidates the challenges posed by modern terrorism at both global and national levels. The analysis encompasses the emergence of asymmetrical warfare tactics, the proliferation of transnational networks, and the diversification of ideological motivations driving terrorist activities. Moreover, it delves into the specific challenges faced by nations, including the rise of domestic radicalization, lone wolf attacks, and vulnerabilities in security infrastructure. By examining these issues, this paper aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the contemporary terrorism landscape, highlighting the imperative for international cooperation, enhanced cybersecurity measures, and community engagement strategies in countering this pervasive threat. Through case studies and projections for future trends, it offers valuable insights for policymakers and practitioners tasked with addressing the complexities of terrorism in the 21st century.

Early Cold War Counterinsurgency: The Romanian Campaign in Comparative Perspective (1944-1962)

ABSTRACT This paper offers a comparison between Romanian communist counterinsurgency (1944–1962) and similar campaigns fought by Western and Eastern governments in the early Cold War, in particular those waged by the British and French governments in their African, Asian and European colonies and those of the Soviet Union in its borderlands. The comparison focuses on three main components, population control, intelligence and military operations. Highlighting both similarities and differences across different cultural, economic, geographical, ethnic and political landscapes, the perspective laid out in this paper is an argument in favour of systematic and sustained comparative approaches to asymmetric warfare.

A Study of Indonesian Perspectives on the Future of the South China Sea: Navigating the Dynamics of Asymmetric Warfare

This article explores the shifting global dynamics, focusing on the rise of East Asia, particularly China, and its impact on the Asia Pacific region. The South China Sea (SCS) emerges as a critical area with territorial disputes, notably China's assertive claims and the U.S.'s involvement, leading to heightened tensions. Indonesia's strategic position becomes pivotal in navigating these geopolitical shifts. The analysis emphasizes Indonesia's role in promoting a peaceful SCS region through its free and active policy and ASEAN membership. The Kantian Triangle, rooted in Liberalism theory, serves as a conceptual framework, highlighting the importance of democracy, economic interdependence, and international organizations in conflict resolution. Indonesia's engagement in regional organizations, especially ASEAN, is crucial for resolving SCS conflicts. The ASEAN Outlook On The Indo-Pacific (AOIP) reflects a commitment to inclusive cooperation, prioritizing shared interests. The article underscores Indonesia's efforts to balance relations with the U.S. and China through economic cooperation, contributing to regional stability. Indonesia's economic ties with both nations, guided by the principles of the Kantian Triangle, aim to foster cooperation and reduce the potential for conflict in the SCS. In conclusion, Indonesia's strategic positioning and active diplomatic role positions it as a key mediator, contributing to lasting peace in the SCS amidst the competition between major powers.

Common Article 3 and Asymmetric Warfare in the Context of Cyber Operations

International Humanitarian Law (IHL) serves as the crucial framework governing armed conflicts, seeking to humanize warfare and regulate the conduct of hostilities, whether at the international or non-international level. While the rules outlined in Common Article 3 (CA3) and Additional Protocol II (APII) pertain specifically to non-international armed conflicts (NIAC), customary international law also plays a significant role. The landscape of armed conflicts has evolved, particularly with the rise of asymmetric warfare, where adversaries may possess disparate capabilities in terms of weaponry, arsenal, or digital prowess. In the contemporary era marked by rapid digitalization, the emergence of cyber warfare introduces new challenges to IHL. Defining cyber operations within the context of armed conflicts remains an ongoing process, raising questions about the applicability and extent of IHL to cyber-attacks and establishing clear thresholds for compliance. This article delves into the intricate inquiry of whether cyber attacks amount to armed conflicts, examining the applicability and scope of IHL in addressing this evolving and complex phenomenon. Furthermore, as the dynamics of armed conflicts continue to evolve, the traditional paradigms of warfare are being reshaped by the increasing prevalence of cyber operations. The transformative nature of cyber warfare introduces complexities in determining the initiation, duration, and conclusion of armed conflicts. This article also explores the challenges posed by the attribution of cyber attacks and the identification of responsible actors, crucial aspects for ensuring accountability under IHL. By examining the nuanced intersections of cyber operations and armed conflicts, the research aims to contribute to a comprehensive understanding of how IHL can effectively adapt to and govern these emerging forms of warfare in the contemporary digital age.

STRATEGY TO PREVENT DETERIORATION OF PANCASILA VALUES IN THE INDONESIAN TOURIST GUIDE ASSOCIATION MEMBER

The focus of warfare has transformed from traditional armed forces to asymmetric warfare, resulting in the rise of extremism across various layers of society. This research explores the decline of Pancasila values among Indonesian Tourist Guide Association members. This study aims to formulate appropriate strategies that uphold Pancasila values within the framework of the tourism industry. The study employs a rigorous library research methodology, reviewing various academic literature, including books, training material, and prior research. Additionally, observational analyses of the tourist guide training process are conducted to determine its correlation with contemporary violence involving tourist guides. The research recommends that relevant institutions adapt the existing training curriculum by integrating additional instructional material on Pancasila values and their practical application within the nuanced context of the tourism industry. Addressing this issue, the study, particularly within the Indonesian Tourist Guide Association, contributes significantly to the scholarly discourse on countering extremism and violence.

Encryption, Asymmetric Warfare, and the Need for Lawful Access Encryption, Asymmetric Warfare, and the Need for Lawful Access

Encryption, Asymmetric Warfare, and the Need for Lawful Access Encryption, Asymmetric Warfare, and the Need for Lawful Access

War crimes and questions on justice in asymmetric warfare

War crimes and questions on justice in asymmetric warfare

The Legal Challenges Of Asymmetrical Warfare: Lessons from Afghanistan's Armed Conflict (2001-2021)

The Legal Challenges Of Asymmetrical Warfare: Lessons from Afghanistan's Armed Conflict (2001-2021)

Стратегія протидії незаконним збройним формуванням: зміст, складові, еволюція

Стратегія протидії незаконним збройним формуванням: зміст, складові, еволюція

Just War contra Drone Warfare

In this article, I present a two-pronged argument for the immorality of contemporary, asymmetric drone warfare, based on my new interpretations of the just war principles of “proportionality” and “moral equivalence of combatants” (MEC). The justification for these new interpretations is that drone warfare continues to this day, having survived despite arguments against it that are based on traditional interpretations of just war theory (including one from Michael Walzer). On the basis of my argument, I echo Harry Van der Linden’s call for “an international treaty banning all weaponized UAV [uninhabited aerial vehicles].”

Hybrid Warfare: Strategies and Counterstrategies in the India-Pakistan Rivalry

Hybrid Warfare represents a sophisticated amalgamation of diverse warfare strategies, seamlessly blending both conventional and non-conventional techniques. This nuanced approach encompasses an array of tactics, incorporating elements from fake news to cybercrimes, civil unrest to economic warfare, and diplomacy to separatist movements. Also recognized as asymmetrical or new-generation warfare, its primary objective is not confrontation but to meticulously identify and exploit the fault lines, vulnerabilities, and trigger points within the targeted nation. Pakistan has been subject to hybrid security threats from its historic rival India since the day of independence. The paper sheds light on Indian hybrid warfare against Pakistan which broadly encompasses political and diplomatic support to the separatist movements, targeted campaigns on social media, and hindering the timely completion of CPEC and other developmental projects. Given the intensity of hybrid security threats and their fall-flanged impact on the peace, development, and security of the state, the article has attempted to provide comprehensive policy options for Pakistan to effectively counter the hybrid threats.

CYBER CONFLICTS AND NEW PATTERNS OF POLITICAL PROPAGANDA ON THE EXAMPLE OF THE CONFLICT IN UKRAINE

The traditional concept of state sovereignty is shifting towards virtual reality as a result of the development of digitalization and the expansion of cyber warfare techniques and skills, particularly towards the contents of the so-called soft power that are used to attract public support. The case study of the conflict between Ukraine and Russia confirmed to us that, in the current geopolitical landscape, cyberattacks are used as a legal, low-cost strategy to debilitate the opposing side’s material and spiritual well-being. Also, this is how a new form of an asymmetric conflict emerges, which enables actors to inflict significant damage on political opponents and technologically and militarily superior enemies, with the potential for widespread impacts on the members of civil society. Fake news, misinformation, rumors, spins and various forms of unverified content are prevalent in the propaganda war between Ukraine and Russia. This paper also demonstrates how the digital revolution, with its sophisticated seduction techniques, is drawing us further into the world of algorithms, encrypted messages and social media with personalized accesses, along with the trends highlighting the growing power of smart filters controlled by artificial intelligence which determine the accuracy of information even before it is visible. Key words: national sovereignty, cyber conflict, political propaganda, Russia-Ukraine war, algorithms, artificial intelligence, new reality.

Impact of the Applicability of Common Article 3 on the Asymmetric Warfare

Although International Humanitarian Law endeavors to curtail the calamities of warfare both at international and at national level in the form of non-international armed conflict (NIAC) and international armed conflict (IAC) yet due to the asymmetric nature of warfare there is a dire need to expand the scope of IHL especially the common article 3 (CA3) and the Additional protocol II (ApII) in order to implement it effectively. This article insinuates to broaden the scope of the international humanitarian Law in order to cater the unnecessary suffering and calamities caused the asymmetric warfare. The objective is to further chalking out an adhesive framework and mechanism to cover the cases of asymmetric warfare by extending the scope of Common Article 3 and additional protocol II as well. The research article inspects how asymmetric and symmetric warfare is distinguished and characterized to highlight the evolving dimensions of asymmetric warfare with time.

Whether and to what extent does international law allow states to use military force against armed non-state actors on the territory of another state?

The relevance of the article is due to the importance of understanding the legal boundaries of state actions in the context of the growth of transnational terrorism, insurgent movements and asymmetric wars. Recent conflicts and military interventions highlight the urgent need to clarify international law regarding the acceptable use of force against armed non-state actors located in the territory of another state. Finding the delicate balance between respecting state sovereignty and ensuring the right to self-defence poses a significant challenge. The subject of the research is primarily the contemporary attribution concepts that may be used during the justification of the use of military force by states against armed non-state actors on the territory of another sovereign state. The purpose of the research is to critically examine legal aspects and state practice relating to the aforementioned concepts. The novelty of the study lies in the fact that by bringing together legal developments, state practice and some issues in using force sphere, the article offers new insights into the complex interralation between state sovereignty and the right to self-defence. Brief conclusions: 1) According to some states and experts, using military force against armed non-state actors on the territory of another state violates the sovereignty of that state, whereas others claim that it may be justified under the right of self-defence. In this regard, state practices have been inconsistent. 2) Nowadays, the «effective control» test is the only legally justified approach that triggers the right to self-defence against armed non-state actors on foreign soil. 3) There is no well-established state practice and opinio juris relating to other examinded attribution tests or the «Unable or Unwilling» doctrine.

Iran’s four tactics to deter threats at sea

Arguably, the Commander-in-Chief of the Iranian armed forces relies on four pillars to deter their enemies at sea: implementing asymmetric warfare tactics; improving Iran’s naval capabilities at the tactical and strategic levels; using naval proxy forces, and building regional and global naval alliances. The author evaluates these pillars and contends that it is time for the United States to consider building an Arab naval alliance in the Persian Gulf.

No, Punitive House Demolition Does Not Reduce Suicide Bombing: Revisiting Evidence from the Second Intifada

ABSTRACT Punitive house demolitions were intensified by the Israeli government during the Second Intifada with the intent of curbing suicide bombings. Using econometric analysis, Benmelech et al. (2015) suggest that this policy is effective, citing deterrence as the driving factor. In 2014, the Israeli Supreme Court relied on the findings of an earlier draft of the Benmelech paper to reject a petition against the resumption of punitive housing demolition. In this research, I show that the Benmelech findings are spurious due to misspecified modelling and that the reported effect of punitive house demolition camouflages confounding factors. I also show that among the multiple security measures put in place during the Second Intifada, arrest campaigns did negatively impacted suicide bombings. I provide suggestive evidence that explains individual motives for suicide bombings and why punitive house demolition lacks a deterrence effect. The motives are likely related to the aggravation of grievances from excessive state oppression, willingness to exact revenge, and the glorification of self-sacrifice and martyrdom in asymmetric conflict.

Analysis of power asymmetry conflict based on fuzzy options graph models

Asymmetric power conflicts occur frequently. Because of the complexity of the conflict as well as the vagueness of the decision makers’ cognition, it becomes urgent and highly motivated to propose an appropriate method to solve power asymmetry conflict. In this study, we consider that decision makers provide option choices quantified by some degrees of membership. The choice of an option is determined by the thresholds of selection degree. At the same time, due to the influence of the power, the follower adjusts its degree of option choice to reach consensus with the leader. The computational rules determining fuzzy truth value are given, and a fuzzy truth value option prioritization method is proposed to calculate the ranking of the states, where the states ordering is related to the fuzzy degree of option selection. Different from the previous studies, this paper is the first one to study the asymmetric power conflict from the perspective of options, considering the psychological threshold of decision maker for option selection, and pointing out that the option choice is described with the fuzzy values rather than being treated as two-valued (Boolean). Furthermore, the introduced stability analysis also reflects the interaction of the options of different decision makers, which makes the proposal being more in rapport with real-world scenarios. Finally, a case study of carbon emission reduction power asymmetry conflict in supply chain is studied to demonstrate the performance of the proposed method.