Asymmetric Warfare Research Articles

Survey of Military Physician Receptivity to Telemedicine and Perceived Telemedicine-Amenable Conditions in Turkey.

Today, asymmetric conflict and terrorism pose a threat to not only soldiers but also civilians, forcing the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) to confront new threats and rethink its strategy. Various studies have shown that telemedicine is one of these advancements and that it can eventually bring expert advice to the field. Telemedicine, on the other hand, is new in Turkey and has yet to be implemented in the field. The aim of this study is to evaluate the support of health personnel with telemedicine from the perspective of military physicians. This study was carried out between 20 August 2021 and 5 October 2021 with the participation of 47 military physicians working as research assistants in a training and research hospital. A questionnaire consisting of 17 questions was used to evaluate military physicians' perspectives on telemedicine and their expectations from it. Forty-six of the participants stated that they wanted a healthcare provider/expert opinion to consult about the patient/injured while they were on field and that telemedicine could be used within the scope of field medicine (4.51 ± 0.62). They also stated that telemedicine centers should employ emergency medicine specialists in particular (n = 40, 85.1%). The participants agreed that these centers would be quite useful, particularly for medical evacuations (n = 42, 89.4%). Telemedicine's long-term viability in our country is thought to be contingent upon it covering medical conditions that are practical, require fewer technical intricacies, and appeal to emergency health services. The openness of the personnel to innovation and change is expected to improve harmony and cooperation.

Poimanje pobede u strategijskom konceptu totalne odbrane

Small states that base their defence strategy on the concept of total defence, even if they do not defeat a stronger opponent militarily, and in the course of an armed conflict deny the enemy an absolute victory according to their criteria, and at the same time protect their national interests, can consider such an outcome victory. Victory at strategic level is conditioned, and not entirely determined, by military victories at tactical and operational level. Claiming victory at strategic level is a qualitative and political perception of state leaders, while at a lower level it is mostly the subject of quantitative analysis by military commanders. By analysing the content of strategic and doctrinal documents, scientific publications, and then by comparative and historical analysis of the concepts of strategy and victory, their relationship and understanding in different historical eras has been shown. The historical comprehension of victory in the Republic of Serbia since the restoration of statehood in the 19th century until today has been particularly analysed. A multiple study (R. Serbia 1999-2022; Afghanistan 2001-2021; Iraq 2003-2022) in which the defenders' successes were analysed after the attack by an asymmetrically stronger armed force led by the US Armed Forces, has served as the basis for scientific generalisation and making a final statement about victory and the concept of total defence. By understanding that the strategic victory of the weaker in an asymmetric conflict is achieved by relying on armed forces, and above all by the synergy of all elements of national power, the conditions are created to get out of conflicts under favourable conditions with as few human and material losses as possible.

Tinker, Tailor, Soldier, Informer: Revisiting the Ethics of Espionage in the Context of Insurgencies and New Wars

AbstractThis essay starts by accepting Cécile Fabre's argument in her book Spying through a Glass Darkly that intelligence work, including using incentives and pressures to encourage betrayal and treason, can be morally justified based on the criteria of necessity, effectiveness, and proportionality. However, while assessments of spying tend to be based on Cold War notions, I explore it here in the messier reality of counterinsurgency, counterterrorism, and “new wars.” In addition, I suggest a methodological expansion: adding a sociological perspective to the ethical discussion by exploring the wider effects on society, over longer periods, of the operation of informers. Based on these shifts in perspective and context, I identify additional social harms generated by espionage that should lead to a more restrictive view of ethical espionage than the one emerging from Fabre's work. I argue that many of these social harms are created by the mass recruitment of informers, in asymmetrical conflicts where governments have leverage over suspected communities, and given the (often mistaken) belief that everyone recruited to act as informer is an “asset,” primarily providing advantages. I argue, therefore, that the decisive issue is one of scale: many of the ethical problems created by espionage in these contexts result from the widespread systematic recruitment of informers, while small-scale, targeted, ad-hoc recruitment can more easily avoid such problems.

ДОСЛІДЖЕННЯ ОСОБЛИВОСТЕЙ СУЧАСНИХ ГІБРИДНИХ ВІЙН

An important issue today has become a comprehensive study of the specifics of the development and implementation of modern hybrid warriors. The work is devoted to the current topic of modern military science – hybrid wars. Based on the analysis of various types of wars, a hybrid war is defined as a war with a complex character, with a wide range of various methods of action, including a fierce confrontation of diplomats, information warfare, ideological struggle, the application of economic and political pressure on the enemy, exceptional activity of special services and actual military actions. In the theoretical works of military specialists, experts, analysts, and scientists in recent years, the topic of hybrid wars and hybrid threats has been occupying more and more space of scientific discussion. At the same time, the palette of definitions, description of signs on the examples of military conflicts and modern wars is so colorful that the understanding of the very essence and content is blurred. Military thought is developing, but there should be no room for interchange of concepts and confusion of categories. War, if considered from the point of view of historical development, becomes more complicated, is conducted in an increasingly wide range of actions – traditional and unusual, direct and indirect (non-linear), combat and “non-military”, becomes more and more complex and integral, as well as – high-tech, information , regular and irregular. Asymmetric wars, alternative wars, unconventional wars, hybrid wars and other definitions are introduced into scientific and theoretical circulation. No matter what definitions are given, the fact that it is war remains unchanged. War of armies, war of peoples and war of different factions fighting for power, existence, influence, resources, territory, etc. Therefore, the essence and content must be defined as categories of war, but war that differs in its real features. The military doctrine of Ukraine considers wars as conflicts depending on the intensity and potential of the confronting states or group of states.

Socio-Economic Perils of Russo-Ukranian War: The 2014 and 2022 Experiences

Moscow’s war against Ukraine in 2014 and its continuation from February 2022 may be described as an asymmetrical war. This is because Russian military far outnumbered that of Ukraine. The war has been described as the most devastated in Europe since 1945 as thousands of lives have been destroyed. Russia has not been able to defeat Russia in over eighteen months into the war but it (Russia) has equally refused to cease fire despite the economic sanctions by United States of America and other western powers. The country (Russia) has remained resolute in its determination to continue with the war against Ukraine. There are many arguments in literatures on causes of the war. Some of these arguments include territorial disputes over Crimea and Donbas region, Russia’s perception of North Atlantic Treaty Organization’s (NATO) expansion as a threat, ideological and cultural differences between Russia and Ukraine, legacies of the Soviet Union, including the collapse of Soviet Union and the rise of nationalism. Scholars have not reached any consensus about which of these factors is most important, and there is no single explanation that captured all the complexities of the conflict. This paper argues that although there are historical, political and economic factors that contributed to the outbreak of the war, the eastward expansion of NATO is the primary reason. The article is exploratory and analytical. It critically analyzes some tertiary sources (internet materials) and at the same time uses critical theory in international relations to explain the causes of the war. It also draws some important sources, including records of governmental and nongovernmental organizations. The paper concluded that the war has negatively affected the world socio-economically and any peace process that did not include internationally-monitored referendum in disputed areas like Crimea and Donbas cannot be said to be a complete peace process.

Войны современности и их влияние на национальную безопасность

Introduction. War occupies a special place in the mankind development because it is an integral part of its history. Thousands of researchers have been engaged in the problem of war from the standpoint of various sciences. The confrontation of nations and individual social groups as a social and political fact has been seen in philosophical thought since the epoch of the first major civilizations. However, at the present stage of society’s development, the problems of war are closely connected with the national security phenomenon because the state protection from internal and external threats actually prevents the risks of damage to manpower, civilian population, infrastructure, and economy. The purpose of the study is to determine to what degree the leading characteristics of the three main war forms influence the national security transformation at the present stage of society development. Methods. To achieve the study purpose and solve the tasks set, the logical method of analysis for structuring materials, the historical method for correct and chronologically consistent presentation of facts, the comparative method for identifying distinctive parameters in the compared judgments and the deductive method for determining conclusions based on the results of the study are used. Scientific novelty of the research. The study provides a detailed analysis of modern wars and their impact on national security. The author has studied the interrelationships between various forms of military conflicts and their consequences for the stability of the state. Special attention is paid to the methodology of analyzing hybrid and asymmetric wars, which allows a deeper understanding of their characteristics and impact on the national security system. This approach helps to better understand the dynamics of modern threats and strategies to counter them. Results. The author gives the definition of national security through the war phenomenon, determines the features of conventional war that influence the formation of the national security of the state and the requirements for transforming security, analyzes the influence of asymmetric warfare methods on national security, determines the features of hybrid warfare in opposition to the fundamentals of national security, and makes the conclusion on the influence of various war forms on national security transformation and stability. Conclusions. At the present stage of the world community development, various war forms require an individual state to transform methods and mechanisms of national security that would not keep up or catch up with the war technologies but prevent threats based on a stable national identity, the coordinated work of all actors of national security, the construction of mechanisms that serve the stability of social and economic activity.

Secure Two-Way Fiber-Optic Time Transfer Against Sub-ns Asymmetric Delay Attack With Clock Model-Based Detection and Mitigation Scheme

Secure Two-Way Fiber-Optic Time Transfer Against Sub-ns Asymmetric Delay Attack With Clock Model-Based Detection and Mitigation Scheme

Zaštita škola u zonama sukoba u pojasu Gaze prema međunarodnom humanitarnom pravu

The paper has discussed the violation against education facilities in Gaza Strip from the International Humanitarian Law (IHL) perspective 1 , explaining the challenges and the impact of armed conflict on education rights. The paper will identify those violations and will propose methodologies to improve the adoption of the IHL against them. Moreover, it will discuss the policies to decrease the impact of those violations and propose techniques to respond to the threats against children's rights within the war duration. It will be analyzed the applied IHL in the protection of the education system in Gaza Strip from the attack which happened in 2021 by exploring the efficiency of the IHL impartially. In this research, a qualitative approach has been adopted as a primary source in exploring how educational institutions should be protected within IHL (which should be respected) during attacks. As per the descriptive study, the research will investigate the importance of protecting children's educational institutions in armed conflict situations. The assessment of child protection was considered in the escalation of Israeli attacks on the Gaza Strip in May 2021. The main source of data has been collected using different media such as Telephone-based semi-structured interviews, E-mail correspondence, documentary review, and agencies working in child protection in Gaza Strip; in addition, other secondary sources have been considered, such as desk review, reliable journalism, and published academic research. Continuous military operations throughout Gaza Strip compose dramatic challenges to getting highly qualified education in a safe environment for children. The air strikes and rocket attacks prevented 637,1952 students from being in school in a safe environment (Jeanne, 2008). Other reports addressed that Israeli airstrikes destroyed over 184 schools in 2021 3and caused partial or severe damage to others. As addressed in other reports, the students and the academic staff have suffered from different cases of depression and expressed their fears of asymmetric warfare in addition to being under blockage (OCHA, May 2021). Regarding the laws governing educational facilities and institutions' protection, IHL still has some space for improvement that can be addressed and applied in the future to enhance them (Adam, 2011). It is known that numerous kid fatalities and schools suffered partial or total destruction as a result of military activities. On the same, it is documented that the levels of violence against educational organizations and schools hit unheard-of levels in the last ten years.

TEKNOLOGI BLOCKCHAIN DALAM KAJIAN PEPERANGAN ASIMETRIS: PERSPEKTIF INDONESIA

Technological advances are changing the face of war and how we prepare for it. Blockchain, as a technological breakthrough in the field of information technology, opens up numerous opportunities for research and application in a variety of fields. Using a qualitative descriptive method, this paper aims to provide an overview of the opportunities and threats presented by the presence of blockchain technology in the study of asymmetric warfare. The study's findings are expected to be considered when making decisions to implement blockchain technology in the defense sector in Indonesia as an anticipatory strategy against asymmetric warfare. The benefits and negative impacts brought about by the emergence of blockchain technology are the indicators used in this research to explore the problems. According to the findings of this study, blockchain technology can be used to improve cybersecurity, reduce single points of failure in emergency decision-making systems, improve supply chain and logistics operations efficiency, increase the transparency of audits of procurement of goods and services, protect weapon systems and digital infrastructure, secure unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) and swarm systems, and validate orders and battle information. However, blockchain technology has a negative impact due to its potential to be used for various cryptocurrencies-related cybercrime.

More than a feeling: Effects of competitive asymmetry on human emotions

Competitive interactions have important effects on human emotions. Both victory and defeat can evoke a wide range of emotional reactions, including joy, pride, anger, fear, sadness and shame. However, little is known about what determines this variety of contestants’ affective responses. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of competitive asymmetry, a common and ecologically relevant feature of animal conflicts, on human emotional responses to winning or losing a contest. To test this hypothesis, we conducted two experiments, the first with high school students (n = 331) and the second with young athletes (n = 73), in which we manipulated the outcomes of successive matches in a non-athletic competition. Thus, by inducing the competitors’ scores, ranging from closer to more decisive outcomes, we were able to define the degree of competitive asymmetry in victory and defeat conditions. We then assessed participants’ emotional responses to a set of affective stimuli. In the defeat condition, we found in both studies an increase in the occurrence of anger and fear due to more symmetric contests. There were also more frequent reports of shame following more decisive defeats (Experiment 1) and of pride following closer victories (Experiment 2), which were seen neither for sadness nor joy in any of the studies. Supporting our hypothesis, emotional reactions triggered by asymmetries among contestants were consistent with the behavioral patterns commonly seen in symmetric and asymmetric animal conflict, such as dominance/aggressive and defensive/escape behaviors.

GRAND STRATEGY AND MILITARY IMPLICATIONS OF NEW RUSSIA’S MILITARY DOCTRINE IN 21ST CENTURY: GEOSTRATEGIC ASPECTS OF HYBRID WARFARE STRATEGY AGAINST GEORGIA AND UKRAINE

: A paper reflects new dimensions of New Cold War geostrategic balance implications at pan-regional (European) and regional (Black Sea) levels that already has been transformed into classical hybrid warfare between the Russian Federation and NATO due to the Russia’s invasion into Ukraine. Currently adopted military doctrine of the Russian Federation envisages engagement into two military conflicts simultaneously and constructed its strategic operational framework founded on incorporation of three combat elements: military, non-military and information warfare measures and proper concepts. Hence, it means that Russia can begin war-game scenarios at the same time against two neighboring nations as it occurs at time being against Ukraine and Georgia. At that respect, the incumbent Russian military leadership in aegis of so-called “Gerasimov Doctrine” is promoting hybrid warfare as a key dominant grand strategy with relevant theater strategy and operational art elements (for instance, operational – strategic command HQ “South” and 5 Army Corp HQs). The military “muscle” could easily skew and twist European security environment that is much unprepared to the geostrategic challenge – Crimea occupation and annexation in 2014, war with Georgia in 2008, hybrid attack to Estonia in 2007 and very recently large-scale military intervention in Azov Sea and pending regional hegemony conditions in Caspian Basin. These military asymmetric challenges and risks deriving from the arms race derailed by the Russia’s incumbent authority, and security dilemma embroiled with by the elements of WMD are sufficient indications why the European security is plausible fragile against such challenges. From academic standpoint, the thesis deals in analyzing with the most dangerous threat targeting the European security architecture – asymmetric military challenge and realization of which is pursued in wagging hybrid war against Georgia and Ukraine. The new type of warfare is a probe stone perfected against these two post-Soviet nations indicates and poses real menace, mainly geostrategic origin, easily targeted NATO member-states, including Poland. The article predisposes reflection and understanding true meaning of so-called “Gerasimov Doctrine” and the whole new version of Military Doctrine of Russia and how it is implemented at the stage. A shift transformation takes place in realms of contemporary century warfare doctrinal planning and the transformation has already implicated of identifying new type of warfare strategy – asymmetric war with representation of hybrid warfare that contributing in re-shaping a grand strategy that allows policymakers to steer through the uncertainties of a complex international security environment; Elaboration real content and new definition of “hybrid war” and its dualfold implications how to quell and deal with asymmetric military challenges and risks and how to cause the challenges on its matter. Moreover, it describes and review reformatting modality in planning and wagging war due to the military technology development that contributed to a far more complicated strategic environment for war than that of previous century. In that respect is to be identified new style of warfare – Urbanistic warfare presented in 2008 August Russia-Georgia war as well as in war in Ukraine (Mariupol battle) new definition of the warfare in general matter.

RECONSIDERING THE CONCEPT OF CHOKEPOINTS FOR THE 21st CENTURY

Chokepoints can be best described as areas where the ability to transport or deploy assets or goods can be severely denied or restricted, due to their limited spatial characteristics. As such, a potential party to an armed conflict can deploy a relatively small detachment of assets in order to interdict the aforementioned actions, with considerable results, especially during a conventional, large scale war, representing, from a certain perspective, a method of conventional asymmetric warfare against a numerically superior force. During history, chokepoints have been mainly considered to be areas of water or land, where the ability to maneuver of the deployed forces have been severely hindered, although, with the emergence of new warfighting domains, such as cyber and space, the definition of the chokepoint, as well as the perception of using them during warfare, can be expanded. The purpose of this paper is to analyze the different types of non-traditional chokepoints (space and information centered), their origins and vulnerabilities, as well as presenting a series of recommendations with the purpose of increasing their level of security. The methodology of research used in this paper is the historical analysis of the concept of chokepoint, the observation of technical measures that could create to the establishment of new types of chokepoints, as well as that of possible ways of mitigating these security threats

Victories and Losses of the United States and Russia in Asymmetric Conflicts in the 21st Century

Victories and Losses of the United States and Russia in Asymmetric Conflicts in the 21st Century

Ukraine Aftershocks

The major shock of the war in Ukraine draws attention to two aftershocks: asymmetric warfare and Ukraine’s software outsourcing capability. Assessment of these provides a basis for additional speculation about the future of software.

Provision of trauma care in asymmetric warfare: a conceptual framework to support the decision to implement frontline care services

IntroductionThe emerging trends of asymmetric and urban warfare call for a revision of the needs and the way in which frontline trauma care is provided to affected population. However, there is no consensus on the process to decide when and how to provide such lifesaving interventions in form of Trauma Stabilization Point (TSP).MethodsA three-step Delphi method was used to establish consensus. A focus group discussion was convened to propose a framework and develop the list of twenty-one (21) statements for validation of a group of experts.ResultsA panel of twenty-eight (28) experts reviewed the statements and participated to both first and second rounds. Comments and recommendations provided by the FGD and during round 1 were used to analyze the findings of the study. The proposed framework includes five main categories identified as interconnected components that facilitate the decision to implement or not the TSP. A total of sixteen (16) elements distributed across the five categories have been considered as being able to guide the decision to utilize such capability in high-risk security and resource constrained settings.ConclusionThe TSP has the potential to prevent death and disability. The proposed framework and categories add a structure to the decision-making process and represents an important step to support emergency and trauma care planning and implementation efforts.

Head Face and Neck Surgeon Deployment in the New French Role 2: The Damage Control Resuscitation and Surgical Team.

High-intensity conflict is back after decades of asymmetric warfare. With the increase in the incidence of head, face, and neck (HFN) injuries, the French Medical Military Service has decided to deploy HFN surgeons in the new French Role 2: the Damage Control, Resuscitation, and Surgical Team (DCRST). This study aims to provide an overview of HFN French surgeons from their initial training, including the surgical skills required, to their deployment on the DCRST. The DCRST is a tactical mobile medico-surgical structure with several configurations depending on the battlefield, mission, and flux of casualties. It represents the new French paradigm for the management of combat casualties, including HFN injuries. The HFN's military surgeon training starts during residency with rotation in the different subspecialties. The HFN surgeon follows a training course called "The French Course for Deployment Surgery" that provides sufficient background to manage polytrauma, including HFN facilities on modern warfare. We have reviewed the main surgical procedures required for an HFN military surgeon. The systematic deployment of HFN surgeons in Role 2 is a specificity of the French army as well as the HFN surgeon's training.Currently, the feedback from an asymmetric conflict is encouraging. However, it will have to innovate to adapt to modern warfare.

THE HYBRID WAR CONCEPT EVOLUTION IN ROMANIA’S NATIONAL DEFENCE STRATEGIES

The disappearance of the bipolar hegemonic character, the globalization process, the preservation of some hegemonic statutes and the hybrid aggressions emergence against the tense competitive markets and resources background were the key factors that led to international security environment major changes, fact that required a national defence rethinking, based on new risks and state threats. The way national defence strategies are designed and their content have varied from one period to another, depending on international events, economic crises, geopolitical games as well as past and present affiliations with regional or international institutions and organizations. The hybrid war concept was graduallly introduced in the defence strategies, initially being associated with some more well-known patterns such as asymmetric, informational aggression, terrorism or cyber attacks. However, considering that the conceptual boundaries between peace and war were diluted, they would all need a better nuanced, developed and argued approach.

Preparation of a Flexible X-Band Radar-Wave-Absorbing Composite Material by Using Beta-Silicon Carbide and Polyurethane as Substrates and Multiwalled Carbon Nanotubes as Additives

Silicon carbide (SiC) has good chemical resistance, excellent mechanical properties, thermal conductivity, especially in extreme conditions of application, and has proved to be a very promising electromagnetic absorption material. However, single silicon carbide cannot meet the increasing demand for high performance of absorbing materials. It has become an important research direction to combine it with other absorbing materials to improve its absorbing performance. In this study, a composite absorber material was prepared by 50 wt.% micron-sized beta-silicon carbide (β-sic) powder, mixed with a 0.2 wt.% multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) and 50 wt.% polyurethane (PU) substrate. The mixture was stirred and deaerated to form a slurry, and sprayed onto synthetic fabric. The results showed that the composite material was flexible, with a thickness of less than 2 mm and favorable adhesion. The results obtained by reflection graph of the radar waves, indicated that the return loss within the X-band range (8–12 GHz) was less than −40 dB, indicating favorable radar wave absorption. Therefore, composite materials could thus be used successfully as radar wave absorbers, and was suitable for stealth materials in “asymmetric warfare”.

A model of asymmetric conflict outcome – Sensitivity to friction and choice of strategy in counterinsurgencies

The article assesses a model predicting outcome in counterinsurgencies based on the counterinsurgent’s exposure to external friction and strategy. Unfavorable opinions, as well as insurgents’ access to third-party support and sanctuaries, constitute sources of external friction. Strategies were categorized as mainly kinetic or population-centric. The model predicts: (1) counterinsurgents lose in contexts with high external friction regardless of strategy; (2) counterinsurgents applying a population-centric strategy win if external friction is low; (3) counterinsurgents applying a purely kinetic strategy win if external friction is low only by obtaining distinct tactical superiority. The model correctly predicted 27 of 30 examined cases.

Hibrit, Asimetrik ve Vekalet Savaşları: 2022 Rusya - Ukrayna Savaşını Üçlü Sacayağı Üzerinde Bir İnceleme

Savaşın değişen doğasını anlayabilmek için kullanılan kavramlar arasında hibrit savaş, asimetrik savaş ve vekâlet savaşı kavramları ön plana çıkmaktadır. Savaşın bu gibi farklı perspektiflerden analiz edilmesi, hem savaşın değişen doğasını ve savaş ortamını anlamlandırmada, hem de savunma mekanizmalarının şekillendirilmesinde önem taşımaktadır. Bu nedenle bu çalışmanın amacı, 24 Şubat 2022 günü başlayan Rusya-Ukrayna savaşının Nisan 2022 itibarıyla yaklaşık iki aylık dilimini hibrit, asimetrik ve vekâlet savaşları perspektifinde incelemek ve bir savaş ortamında kamu güvenliğine yönelik tehditler konusunda çıkarımlarda bulunmaktır. Bu inceleme, savaş hakkında yerli ve yabancı basında yer alan haberlerin ve görüşlerin analiz edilmesi ile yapılmıştır. Sonuç olarak Rusya-Ukrayna Savaşı’nın hibrit, asimetrik ve vekâlet savaşlarının özelliklerini yansıttığı görülmüştür. Ayrıca bu savaş ile birlikte uluslararası ilişkiler anlamında sert gücün öneminin yeniden anlaşıldığı; hibrit savaşa karşı en etkili kalkanın devlet organları ve halk arasında etkili bir güven duygusunu tesis etmek olduğu ve savaşın, asimetrik savaş ve vekâlet savaşının özeliklerini yansıtması nedeniyle uzun sürebileceği de altı çizilmesi gereken noktalardandır.