Asymmetric Warfare Research Articles

THREE GEOPOLITICAL SCENARIOS WITH GLOBAL IMPACT

Although it seems chaotic, the international environment is shaped by predictable forces, nurtured by interest and lust for power and domination. However, sometimes, as Nassim Nicholas Taleb pointed out, "black swans" can happen, meaning events that come as a total surprise and have a major effect. This article refers to three predictable geopolitical developments with significant impact on the global power competition, namely: the re-election of Donald J. Trump as US President; Chinese global financial initiative, including a new Asian bloc currency and a new gold/currency benchmark; and the extension of the asymmetric war between Israel and HAMAS. Three foreseeable geopolitical dynamics, which can however be influenced by chance (“black swans”). The study is linear, starting with the hypotheses, continuing with data collection, data analysis and synthesis and ending with conclusions. The research methods belong to geopolitics and combine data analysis and synthesis with inductive-deductive and ambispective methods. The data used are exclusively from open sources and include official documents, literature and journalistic sources.

Integrated Defense: Combining Aspects of Social Media, Cyber and Technology in the Context of Asymmetric Warfare

Integrated defense is a core component of Indonesia's defense and security strategy, designed to protect the country's sovereignty, territorial integrity, and national safety from both physical and non-physical threats, especially cyber threats. With the rapid technological advancements and the rise of social media, cyber threats have become a significant concern as they impact various aspects of national security. Indonesia's large population of internet and social media users heightens the urgency for strategic attention to cyber defense. The government has introduced various policies and regulations, such as those by the Ministry of Defense, to strengthen cyber security and integrate it into national defense mechanisms. This study uses a qualitative descriptive approach, analyzing literature and legal frameworks to highlight the significance of integrated defense in addressing modern, asymmetric threats. In asymmetric warfare, non-military means, including cyber-attacks, are used to weaken a nation's ideological, political, economic, and social systems. The research emphasizes the need for a comprehensive and adaptive strategy, involving collaboration between the government, private sector, and civil society, to counter these complex threats. Strengthening cyber defense through education, training, and public awareness is crucial for safeguarding Indonesia's national security in the digital age.

Non-State Actors in Asymmetric Conflicts: What does It Mean and What Follows of It

The article examines the problem of the participation of non-state actors in armed conflicts in the post-war period. The study is based on the theory of asymmetric conflict, which offers hypotheses about the reasons for the paradoxical defeat of developed countries against relatively weak opponents, including non-state actors. The empirical basis of the study is armed conflict databases, which allow us to test sole observations and hypotheses about the characteristics of asymmetric armed conflicts. The study uses the databases of the Uppsala Conflict Data Program Project (Sweden) and the COSIMO Project (University of Heidelberg, Germany) as well as publications of the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI). The study shows that the phenomenon of asymmetric conflicts reflects several important patterns of armed conflicts in the post-war period: the predominance of intrastate over interstate conflicts; the internationalisation of armed conflicts through the involvement of other countries, international organisations or non-state actors; the direct or indirect involvement of great powers in such conflicts; and the majority of armed conflicts occurring in Asia, Africa and the Middle East. Post-war armed conflicts are often referred to as “proxy wars” because the direct participants in the conflict are supported by external actors – states or non-state actors. The issues in conflicts between states and non-state actors are often political in nature, and the fundamental distinction between domestic and foreign policy has been overcome. The post-war period shows a gradual change of attitude towards the participation of non-state actors in armed conflicts, which reflects the recognition of their legitimacy as participants in the conflict, the negotiation and conclusion of agreements on the cessation of hostilities. Non-state actors in armed conflicts are themselves legitimised as representing the interests of particular groups and the goals of their struggle. UN peacekeeping operations since the end of the Cold War confirm these changes. Research on the participation of non-state actors in armed conflict reveals a broadening of the agenda and methodology for the study of post-war armed conflict, reflecting significant changes in the practice of international relations. These changes concern who is recognised as a legitimate actor in international relations, what role non-state actors play in armed conflict, and how non-state actors are viewed by other actors in international relations – states, international governmental and non-governmental organisations.

Interaction of International Humanitarian Law and International Human Rights Law in the context of armed conflicts

It is indicated that the problems of the interaction of international humanitarian law and international human rights law lie in the different historical origins, evolution and application of these two branches of law. The complexity of the interaction between the IHL and the ICRC lies in their extraterritorial action and different personal spheres of application. IHL undeniably applies to international and non-international armed conflicts, regulating the conduct of states and armed groups, while the IHL is recognized as the basis of law in peacetime, but also applies in periods of conflict. Finding the points of intersection between international human rights law (IHRL) and international humanitarian law (IHL) in the context of armed conflicts is the main objective of this section. The merger of these two legal fields, traditionally divided into separate areas of responsibility in peacetime and wartime, has gained unprecedented importance in the legal analysis of modern conflicts. The impetus for the development of the new paradigm was the rapid evolution of the nature of war, characterized by the emergence of asymmetric warfare and the blurring of the boundaries between state and non­state actors. Such transformations in the theater of war require a nuanced understanding of the legal instruments used in this context, which emphasizes the need for this analysis. The urgency of the issue is emphasized by the changing dynamics of international practice. The recognition by the International Court of Justice of the continued applicability of IHRL in conflict and the definition of IHL as lex specialis emphasizes that the legal landscape is in constant flux. At the heart of this analysis is the difficulty of determining the applicability of IHL, a task that is complicated by the problems of classifying conflicts as international or non-international. The principle of derogation - whereby states may temporarily suspend certain human rights obligations - creates an additional layer of complexity, affecting the interpretation and application of laws during armed conflict. Many provisions of international human rights conventions define the protected interest and then provide that any restrictions must be justified by reference to a list of aims, which varies from article to article and treaty to treaty, that are necessary for the achievement of the aim in question and are proportionate to its achievement. In this way, the IHRL provides a mechanism for balancing the requirements of individuals with those of others or the community itself.

Catch the Cyber Thief: A Multi-Dimensional Asymmetric Network Attack–Defense Game

This paper presents a novel multi-dimensional asymmetric game model for network attack–defense decision-making, called “Catch the Cyber Thief”. The model is built upon the concept of partially observable stochastic games (POSG) and is designed to systematically incorporate multi-dimensional asymmetry into network attack–defense problems. The attack agent is called a “thief” who wants to control a key host by exploring the unfamiliar network environment, and the defense agent is called a “police” who needs to catch the opponent before its goal is accomplished. The results indicate that the asymmetry of network attack and defense is not only influenced by attack and defense strategies but also by spatio-temporal factors such as the attacker’s initial position, network topology, and defense lag time. In addition, we have found that there may exist the “attack rhythm,” which makes “how to maintain a good attack rhythm” and “how to generate a robust defense strategy against different attackers” worth exploring. Compared with existing attack–defense game models, our game model can better generate a direct mapping relationship with real elements, enabling us to understand network attack and defense interactions better, recognize security risks, and design defense strategies that can directly serve real-world decision-making.

The Russia-Ukraine War: An Exploratory Study into the Potential Impact of Cyber Warfare on Asymmetric War Efforts

Purpose: The war in Ukraine brought attention to “new” tactics on the battlefield—namely cyber warfare. It is attracting increased attention from media and civilians, enabling civilians from countries outside of Ukraine to help fight for Ukraine. The impact of cyber warfare on kinetic war efforts is not well understood. Methodology: Secondary data were collected, which included verified reports of cyber interventions in support of either party to the Russian-Ukraine war. Various cyber interventions are discussed in terms of the type of intervention, modus operandi, and potential effect. All data have been published in English by credible sources. The effect of cyber interventions will be analysed to determine their potential impact on states that are party to an asymmetrical war. Findings: Cyber warfare can potentially act as a force multiplier in kinetic efforts through actionable intelligence collected. Currently, the effect of cyber warfare seems to be negligible, as neither party to the Russian-Ukraine war effort has achieved its political ideologies. In fact, the use of drones has brought about an escalation in violence. Implications: A better understanding of cyber interventions and more effective application of these in a kinetic war could potentially aid a nation-state in achieving its ideological objectives faster, thereby reducing the intensity of the negative socioeconomic impact on nation-states not party to the conflict. Current scholarly debates about cyber warfare view the impact of cyber interventions in a kinetic effort as negligible. This article will point to a linchpin that could change the current opinion of scholars.

Maritime asymmetric warfare strategy for smaller states: lessons from Ukraine

ABSTRACT Ukraine’s success against Russia’s Black Sea fleet has reignited the debate on the employment of asymmetric warfare at the state level. However, this asymmetric conflict comes with its own set of challenges and advantages. Rather than focusing on specific platforms, which we term as ‘platform centric’, smaller states should rather focus on wide-ranging capabilities in what we term the ‘capability centric approach’, in order to mitigate the power asymmetry potentially facing them. We conclude that by utilising the ‘capability centric approach’ smaller states would not only address the power asymmetry but also enjoy the resultant deterrent effects of having such capabilities.

Notes on the political economy of war

Written in an essayistic style, this paper explores some of the facets of the complex dynamics of modern warfare, probing the dynamic nature of conflicts; the role of technology and technological progress – the means of destruction as distinguished from the means of production – in modern war; the role of the United States in the globalization of warfare; asymmetric war between civilization and barbarism; and new distinctions between good and bad war, together with new concepts of heroism and mercenaryism. The paper also touches on the socio-cultural impacts of war, including its potential to foster unity or exacerbate divisions within societies.

Dinamika Politik Afghanistan pasca Mundurnya Uni Soviet hingga Masa Enduring Freedom, 1989-2001

This article examines the political transformation in Afghanistan since post-Soviet occupation in 1990s up to Operation Enduring Freedom in early 2000s. Historical studies about Afghanistan with asymmetric conflict approach expected to provide alternative insight on the idea of peace and the world commitment of human rights. Results of this study are useful for further research on political dynamics, foreign intervention, conflict resolution studies, and contemporary Central Asian studies. The main discussion in this article outlines that political factionalism in Afghanistan leads to conflict because every belligerents tends to use militia forces to keep their goals. Afghans’ political circumstances become more complicated when the factions attempts to attract foreign forces to encounter each rival groups. The country become more hard to reconcile as well as the lack of efforts by belligerents to halt their rivalry.

Investigation of dynamic responses of skin simulant against fragment impact through experiments and concurrent computational modeling.

Perforation of the skin by fragment impact is a key determinant of the severity of an injury and incapacitation during modern asymmetric warfare. Computational models validated against experimental data are thus desired for simulating the responses of a skin simulant against fragment impact. Toward this end, experiments and concurrent computational modeling were used to investigate the dynamic responses of the skin simulant against fragment impact. Fragment simulating projectiles (FSPs) of masses 1.10 g and 2.79 g were considered herein, and the responses of the skin simulant were investigated in terms of the threshold velocity, energy density, peak displacement, and failure mechanisms. The results illustrate numerous salient aspects. The skin simulant failure involved cavity shearing followed by elastic hole enlargement, and these results were sensitive to the strain rate. The best agreement between the simulated and experimental results was achieved when the input stress-strain curves to the simulation were based on the full spectrum of strain rates. When a single stress-strain curve corresponding to a specific strain rate was used as the input, the threshold velocity and peak displacement of the skin simulant were either underpredicted or overpredicted depending on the strain rate considered. The threshold velocity was also sensitive to the input failure strain; here, the best agreement was obtained when the failure strain was based on the theoretical limiting strain. When the FSP materials were changed to plastics, the threshold velocities increased by up to 33%; however, the energy densities and generated stresses exceeded the contusion and laceration thresholds of the skin.

Legal Politic As Counter An Asymmetrical Warfare In The 5 & 6th Generation War

Legal politics as a defense system against asymmetric war is very important. War today is no longer conventional but has entered the 5th and 6th generations in an asymmetric and hybrid manner. This research uses an explanatory qualitative method. The analysis technique uses the soft system method (SSM) to provide structured, comprehensive and sharp analysis. In general, this research will discuss legal political alignments in Indonesia, urgency, mechanisms, and the model/concept of Counter Asymmetric War. Specifically, this research discusses political law as a defense system against asymmetric war in the 5th and 6th generation war era which is considered less comprehensive and non-specific. Then, this research determines 4 ideal criteria for Political Law as a defense system against asymmetric war in the 5th and 6th generation war era, including: defense budget, regulatory effectiveness, modernization of technology & defense equipment, and national defense education. These ideal criteria are used to analyze legal politics as a defense system against asymmetric war. The results of the analysis show that the criteria for political law as a defense system against asymmetric war do not comprehensively cover these 4 ideal criteria. As a recommendation, these 4 ideal criteria can be a refinement of the political legal criteria as a defense system against asymmetric war. So that legal political policy as a defense system against asymmetric war can realize the stability of Indonesia's national defense and security.

The Legal Challenges Of Asymmetrical Warfare: Lessons from Afghanistan's Armed Conflict (2001-2021)

The Legal Challenges Of Asymmetrical Warfare: Lessons from Afghanistan's Armed Conflict (2001-2021)

Metamorphosis of Warfare

While humans are imperfect, machines have their limitations, too. Though humans cannot match the speed and accuracy of machines, the ideology, pride and will to dominate and rule are qualities only attributed to humans. The latter’s capability to change and evolve, opens new vistas of opportunities, innovations, integrations, and alignments, such as to deceive, distract, and defile the most invincible assailant. In this context, the fifth generation warfare marks a shift from conventional Clauswitzian understanding of war to the battle of ‘information and perception’. As for the generational concept in warfare, it depicts the evolution of war tactics enabled by advances in science and the accompanying growth in the sophistication of warfare tools. Today warfare relies less on the use of brute force and focuses more on non-kinetic means such as narrative, perception management, and asymmetric conflict to achieve political ends. This paper looks at the evolution of warfare from first to fifth generation. It also explores the latest war trends in land and air warfare and analyzes the hybrid and ‘Everywhere Battlefield’, which though marks technical superiority, yet points to a decline in humanity and human values.

Analyzing Asymmetric Warfare Tactics During Bourbon Reforms: A Technological Perspective on Historical Causes and Modern Implications

Analyzing Asymmetric Warfare Tactics During Bourbon Reforms: A Technological Perspective on Historical Causes and Modern Implications

Optimising Combat Readiness: Practical Strategies for Integrating Physiological and Psychological Resilience in Soldier Training.

This narrative review examines the intricate psychophysiological interplay between cognitive functions and physical responses within military personnel engaged in combat. It elucidates the spectrum of responses elicited by symmetric and asymmetric warfare alongside specialised combat scenarios, including close-quarters and subterranean warfare. Central to this discourse is the emphasis on integrating training programs beyond physical conditioning to encompass psychological resilience and decision-making efficacy under duress. The exploration further ventures into applying advanced technologies such as virtual reality and wearable devices, highlighting their pivotal role in augmenting training outcomes and supporting soldier health. Through a detailed analysis of psychophysiological variations across different military branches of service, the narrative review advocates for bespoke training regimens and support frameworks tailored to address the unique exigencies of each service branch. Concluding observations stress the importance of evolving military training paradigms, advocating for adopting realistic, immersive training simulations that mirror the complexities of the contemporary battlefield. This synthesis aims to contribute to the ongoing discourse on optimising military training protocols and enhancing the operational readiness and well-being of armed forces personnel. This narrative review is essential for military psychologists, trainers, and policymakers, aiming to bridge the gap between theoretical knowledge and practical implementation in military training programs.

The Perspective of Bioterrorism in Asymmetric Warfare and Countering Bioterrorism

The Perspective of Bioterrorism in Asymmetric Warfare and Countering Bioterrorism

The exceptional everyday: terror and the weaponisation of daily life

ABSTRACT In a bid to transform social and political circumstances by instilling outsized fear, terrorists orchestrate atrocities that are unsettling, unanticipated and preclude effective countermeasures. Utilising the critical case of explosive devices – the leading method of ’pure’ terrorism – this article analyses an important, yet underexplored, dimension of this process: the weaponisation of the familiar and everyday. By repurposing ubiquitous, banal artefacts to conceal, manufacture or serve as destructive instruments, terrorists nurture vulnerability, inflict psychic trauma and produce conditions of ontological and social entropy where the surrounding environment appears unstable, corrupted and on the brink of rupture. Rather than a subsidiary dimension of asymmetrical conflict, it is argued that these dynamics are central to terrorism’s organising logic. Accentuating them can, therefore, deepen understanding of the phenomenon’s fearsome effectuation and ability to produce extreme discrepancy between risk and response.

Sex Differences in Screening Positive for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder After Combat Injury.

U.S. military women were at risk of combat exposure and injury from asymmetric warfare during the conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan. Previous research has yielded mixed results when examining sex differences in PTSD following operational deployment. To date, no study has explored sex differences in PTSD after combat injury. This retrospective study included U.S. military service men and women who experienced a combat injury in Iraq or Afghanistan (March 2003 to March 2013) and completed a Post-Deployment Health Assessment (PDHA) within 1 year of injury. The PDHA is administered at the end of deployment and includes the 4-item Primary Care PTSD Screen. The prevalence of screening positive for PTSD was evaluated by sex using a chi-square test. Multivariable logistic regression was used to assess the association between sex and PTSD while adjusting for covariates. The study sample included 16,215 injured military personnel (666 women and 15,549 men). The average time between injury and PDHA was 132 days (SD = 91.0). Overall, women had a higher prevalence of screening positive for PTSD than men (48.3% vs. 40.9%, P < .001). In multivariable regression, women had higher odds than men of screening positive for PTSD (odds ratio, 1.34; 95% confidence interval, 1.14-1.57). Psychiatric history was the strongest predictor of screening positive for PTSD regardless of sex (odds ratio, 1.59; 95% confidence interval, 1.45-1.74). In this novel study of military service members, women were more likely to screen positive for PTSD than men after combat injury. Strategies to mitigate PTSD, enhance resiliency, and incorporate psychological care into injury rehabilitation programs for women may be needed for future U.S. military conflicts where they will play a larger role in combat operations.

Is contact theory still valid in acute asymmetrical violent conflict? A case study of Israeli Jewish and Arab students in higher education.

Is contact theory still valid in acute asymmetrical violent conflict? A case study of Israeli Jewish and Arab students in higher education.

Terrorism in Southwest Papua Region as Asymmetric Warfare

War is an event that can be avoided by most countries in the world. War may be the last alternative that must be taken if diplomacy do not reach an agreement. One of the categories of warfare that results is the asymmetric warfare pattern, which has become a trend in the form of warfare in the current era. Asymmetric warfare describes modern conflicts that exploit power inequalities between the parties involved. It involves tactics and strategies that are different from conventional warfare. The Southwest Papua region has become the center of international attention in recent years due to the increasingly worrying escalation of the terrorist conflict. To understand the escalation of terrorism in Southwest Papua, we need to consider the long history of ethnic and political conflict in the region. Terrorism in Southwest Papua is not only a threat to security, but also an asymmetric war with significant long-term implications due to dissatisfaction and feelings of marginalization that have existed for decades. This article also refers to data and case studies to provide a deeper understanding of terrorism in the Southwest Papua region and its relevance within the framework of asymmetric warfare. The research method in this writing uses a library study method which will be obtained from library sources such as books, websites, articles, journals, and so on. It is hoped that the results of this research will provide an understanding of the causes of terrorism in the Southwest Papua region as asymmetric warfare occurred in Indonesia.