Assimilation Purposes Research Articles

An application of the boundary element method (BEM) to the calculation of the single-scattering properties of very complex ice crystals in the microwave and sub-millimetre regions of the electromagnetic spectrum

To improve the prediction of weather and climate models there is a need for the accurate computation of the single-scattering properties of randomly oriented complex atmospheric ice crystals. Here, we apply BEM to calculate these properties in the microwave and sub-millimetre region of the electromagnetic spectrum for the purposes of all-sky data assimilation. The properties are calculated at the frequencies of 50, 183, 243 and 664 GHz for the temperatures of −83 °C, −43 °C, and −3 °C. The particles are assumed to be complex aggregates of bullet rosettes with maximum dimensions that vary between 10 and 10,000μm. Moreover, the rosette-aggregates are constructed to follow an observed mass-dimension power law that is consistent with an ice microphysics scheme in a weather model. To solve efficiently the BEM linear matrix equation, random orientation is simulated by fixing the particle with respect to the incident plane wave with the latter rotated about the particle. This representation is shown to replicate T-matrix solutions found for hexagonal columns to within a few percent for size parameters between 0.05 and 10. We further show that we can simulate the single-scattering properties with errors less than a few percent, using only 14 and up to 302 incident waves for the smallest and largest size parameters respectively. The errors grow larger only for some of the largest size parameters considered. We find that BEM can be applied to compute accurately the scattering properties of complex ice aggregates of importance to weather and climate models.

EXPERIENCE IN TRAINING SPECIALISTS IN NON-DESTRUCTIVE CONTROL IN THE NUCLEAR POWER INDUSTRY

The data on certification of specialists of non-destructive testing of nuclear power engineering. It is shown that the largest number of specialists is certified for visual and measuring, capillary and ultrasonic control. Some procedures of training specialists in terms of presenting physical principles of NDT and some provisions of normative documents are considered. Relevant recommendations are given for the purpose of full assimilation of the training material. The main points of normative documents, which should be paid special attention to when studying them, are marked. It is noted that the experience, level of training and education of the certified specialists should be taken into account when giving lectures.

Technologies of Visualization of Educational Material - One of the Ways to Form Information Competence

The urgency of the article lies in the substantiation of the importance of using visualization technology in the process of education in the current period, defining the difference between this technology and the principle of visualization at the lesson in the today's educational institution. The article covers the concept of information competence and its components, describes techniques of visualization technology of teaching material, aimed at forming this competence. Special attention is paid to the methods of visualization at a lesson for the purpose of better knowledge assimilation. The article also describes different ways of visualization of educational information as a prerequisite for successful teaching of school subjects. The data contained in the article are the results of the analysis of digital services of visualization of educational content and the study of methodological foundations for the use of all kinds of information visualization tools at different stages of learning during the present lesson. The article covers in detail the most modern ways and means of information visualization, including mental maps, timelines, etc., because enormous information flows require the ability to assess this information, to determine its reliability and trustworthiness, to determine the main thing in it. The content of the article is of practical importance for teachers of today's schools.

Pedagogical conditions for the implementation of interdisciplinary connections within the framework of the updated educational content

The article considers the introduction of the still insufficiently studied updated content of education in the educational process of secondary schools. The special importance of interdisciplinary connections has been scientifically substantiated for the purpose of effective assimilation by students of one or another content. The scientific and methodological foundations of the updated program are analyzed, the priorities of which are spiritual, cultural and moral values ​​in the education of young people, the development of skills and ideas that give them confidence and success in such a rapidly changing world, the ability to apply the acquired knowledge in all kinds of life situations from the point of view of critical thinking. Within the framework of the article, the necessary pedagogical conditions obtained as a result of the integration of the subjects of primary school subjects are determined. Along with this, guidelines have been prepared not only for primary school teachers, but also for all teachers leading the educational process according to the updated program. According to the results of world studies in the field of education, it is stated that teachers with a high level of professionalism will be able to improve the knowledge of young people in terms of quality. On the topic of the study, analysis, sorting, questioning, interviews, diagnostics, and a pedagogical experiment were carried out. The methods of conducting mathematical and statistical processing on them are comprehensively applied. The developed system of conditions was tested in experimental and pedagogical work, in which 84 schoolchildren took part on the basis of the N5 school-gymnasium named after Zhambyl Zhabaev in Taraz. Keywords: interdisciplinary connections, updated program, pedagogical requirements, conditions, elementary class, teacher, modeling.

Insider, Outsider, Observer: Reflections of a Young Black Female Trainee on a Psychiatric Placement

This paper explores the experience of a short-term psychiatric placement completed by a first-year Child and Adolescent Psychotherapist in training. Thought is given as to how three specific attributes of the trainee: being black, being female, and being a participant observer shaped the author's experience and the lessons learned. The theory of Internal Racism (Davids, 2011) is used to highlight how a racist structure in the mind acted to navigate and resolve anxiety before the placement began and during its course. Fanon's (1952/2008) notion of ‘the Black Problem’ is also used to show how historical colonial patterns of relationship have been internalized into a social unconscious and so shaped the trainee's interactions with all individuals on the ward. Two examples are described to illustrate how exchanges with others can be influenced by race. These include ‘the nod’, a subtle form of recognition used amongst black people and ‘racial codeswitching’, adjusting one's self-presentation with the purpose of assimilation. Further thought is given to the practicalities of therapeutic treatment in contrast to medication.

Global Diversity Character Development for Students through Economic Learning

Associated with patterns of habituation, teachers can cultivate character through learning ethics, manners, and pronouncing words that are appropriate to the local context. One of the school's strategies can also get students used to saying the word "Good Morning" as an implementation of the 3S (smile, greeting, and greeting) policy at school. The attitude of students also did not go unnoticed. The teacher instills in students respect for elders, respect for teachers, for friends, a sense of belonging, including the habit of helping each other. For the purpose of assimilation, students from various religions are combined into study groups, so that awareness arises that they are Indonesians with one homeland and one bloodshed.

An Empirical Model of the Equatorial Electron Pitch Angle Distributions in Earth's Outer Radiation Belt

AbstractIn this study, we present an empirical model of the equatorial electron pitch angle distributions (PADs) in the outer radiation belt based on the full data set collected by the Magnetic Electron Ion Spectrometer (MagEIS) instrument onboard the Van Allen Probes in 2012–2019. The PADs are fitted with a combination of the first, third and fifth sine harmonics. The resulting equation resolves all PAD types found in the outer radiation belt (pancake, flat‐top, butterfly and cap PADs) and can be analytically integrated to derive omnidirectional flux. We introduce a two‐step modeling procedure that for the first time ensures a continuous dependence on L, magnetic local time and activity, parametrized by the solar wind dynamic pressure. We propose two methods to reconstruct equatorial electron flux using the model. The first approach requires two uni‐directional flux observations and is applicable to low‐PA data. The second method can be used to reconstruct the full equatorial PADs from a single uni‐ or omnidirectional measurement at off‐equatorial latitudes. The model can be used for converting the long‐term data sets of electron fluxes to phase space density in terms of adiabatic invariants, for physics‐based modeling in the form of boundary conditions, and for data assimilation purposes.

Short-Term Convection-Allowing Ensemble Precipitation Forecast Sensitivity to Resolution of Initial Condition Perturbations and Central Initial States

Abstract Nine sets of 36-h, 10-member, convection-allowing ensemble (CAE) forecasts with 3-km horizontal grid spacing were produced over the conterminous United States for a 4-week period. These CAEs had identical configurations except for their initial conditions (ICs), which were constructed to isolate CAE forecast sensitivity to resolution of IC perturbations and central initial states about which IC perturbations were centered. The IC perturbations and central initial states were provided by limited-area ensemble Kalman filter (EnKF) analyses with both 15- and 3-km horizontal grid spacings, as well as from NCEP’s Global Forecast System (GFS) and Global Ensemble Forecast System. Given fixed-resolution IC perturbations, reducing horizontal grid spacing of central initial states improved ∼1–12-h precipitation forecasts. Conversely, for constant-resolution central initial states, reducing horizontal grid spacing of IC perturbations led to comparatively smaller short-term forecast improvements or none at all. Overall, all CAEs initially centered on 3-km EnKF mean analyses produced objectively better ∼1–12-h precipitation forecasts than CAEs initially centered on GFS or 15-km EnKF mean analyses regardless of IC perturbation resolution, strongly suggesting it is more important for central initial states to possess fine-scale structures than IC perturbations for short-term CAE forecasting applications, although fine-scale perturbations could potentially be critical for data assimilation purposes. These findings have important implications for future operational CAE forecast systems and suggest CAE IC development efforts focus on producing the best possible high-resolution deterministic analyses that can serve as central initial states for CAEs. Significance Statement Ensembles of weather model forecasts are composed of different “members” that, when combined, can produce probabilities that specific weather events will occur. Ensemble forecasts begin from specified atmospheric states, called initial conditions. For ensembles where initial conditions differ across members, the initial conditions can be viewed as a set of small perturbations added to a central state provided by a single model field. Our study suggests it is more important to increase horizontal resolution of the central state than resolution of the perturbations when initializing ensemble forecasts with 3-km horizontal grid spacing. These findings suggest a potential for computational savings and a streamlined process for improving high-resolution ensemble initial conditions.

Sensitivity‐Based Soil Moisture Assimilation for Improved Streamflow Forecast Using a Novel Forward Sensitivity Method (FSM) Approach

AbstractThe need for and the use of different data assimilation techniques to improve the quality of streamflow forecast is now well established. In this paper, the goal is to demonstrate the power of a new class of methods known as the forward sensitivity method (FSM) which is based on the temporal evolution of model sensitivities with respect to the control variables consisting of initial conditions and parameters. FSM operates in two phases: the first phase provides a simple algorithm for placing observations at or near where the square of forward sensitivities attains their maximum values. Using only this selected subset of observations in a weighted least squares method, the second phase then provides an estimate of the unknown elements of the control variables. In this paper, FSM based assimilation is applied to a simple class of two parameter model in a medium‐sized agriculture dominant watershed lying in the Krishna River Basin, India. Four assimilation scenarios were tested to determine the effect of assimilating only sensitive observations as well as the impact of temporally evolving initial condition sensitivity. Sensitivity results showed that observations during the monsoon time alone are enough for assimilation purposes, which has helped in reducing the computational time greatly. Assimilation and forecast results also indicated that the scenarios which assimilated only sensitive observations are better in estimating daily streamflow. From the obtained results, it is concluded that FSM based assimilation has significant potential to improve the streamflow simulations, especially in places where data availability remains a major challenge.

The Importance of the Unique and Distinguishable Features of Ibn Masoud’s Qira?ah (Recitation) Compared to other Qira?at (Recitations)

The rationale of this study was to identify the unique features of Ibn Masoud’s qira?ah and how different it is from other mutawatir (successive) qira?at in the way it uses addition, omission, or change which may affect the meanings of the Quranic verse. This study aims to highlight what singled out Ibn Masoud’s qira?ah from other qira?at. The study adopted the descriptive analytical approch to analyze this Qira’ah. The study reveals the several significant findings. It showsthat the unique features of Ibn Masoud's qira?ah took various forms. For example, addition is sometimes applied by adding words or letters that have their explanatory and linguistic meanings and connotations. This addition can be in accordance with the rules of the Arabic language, or it can take the form of an interpretation, indicating the meaning. The verbal addition or expansion which is unique to Ibn Masoud’s qira?ah has a clarification purpose while keeping the original meaning intact. Moreover, addition by bringing forward or delaying words had many benefits for the interpretation of the Quran and the language as it complied with the rules set by many prominent expert language scholars. Furthermore, it provides the Quran commentators with more explanatory meanings. On the other hand, Ibn Masu’d’s Qira’ah includes omission where a letter or word are taken out from the target text while keeping the meaning linguistically intact and sound. As for changing the words and their meanings, Ibn Masoud’s qira?ah is uniquely characterized by replacing a word with its synonym in the text; mostly for the purpose of clarification and assimilation. Ibdal (permutation) is used by the qira?ah due to two factors; dialects, and sounds. It is based on the difference in dialects, as Ibn Masoud’s qira?ah represents one of the old Arabic dialects; namely the dialect of the Hudhayl tribe. Ibdal in the Qur’anic qira?at is not less important than the study of sounds and dialects.

Climatology of super‐refraction and trapping layers conditions over Central and West Africa

AbstractThe propagation of radio electric waves emitted from ground‐based meteorological instruments is determined through stratification of the atmosphere. In super‐refractive cases characterized by strong temperature inversions or strong vertical moisture gradients, the radar beam can be deflected towards the ground (trapping). This phenomenon often results in spurious returned echoes and misinterpretation of radar images such as erroneous precipitation, wind, and temperature detection. In this study, a 5‐year Central and West Africa (CWA) climatology of the frequency of super‐refractive and trapping‐layer base height has been produced using refractivity computations from European Centre for Medium‐Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) analyses at a 40‐km horizontal resolution and 60 levels in the vertical direction. The aim of this climatology is to improve the understanding on how frequent such anomalous propagations conditions are, which is a prerequisite for fully benefiting from radar data information for the multiple purposes of model validation, precipitation analysis, and data assimilation. First, the main climatological features are summarized for the whole CWA: Sahara and inlands seldom experience super‐refraction, whereas coastal areas are strongly affected, especially in regions where the temperature inversion and the trade winds are intense lying near the surface. Over land, seasonal averages of super‐refraction frequencies reach 80% (40%) over moist areas year‐round but remain below 40% (15%) in most other regions. Seasonal statistics exhibit a pronounced diurnal cycle of super‐refraction occurrences, with averaged frequencies peaking at 60% in summer late afternoon over the areas located on the Atlantic Ocean border but inlands region are less affected with super‐refractive cases by midday.

Evaluating errors due to unresolved scales in convection‐permitting numerical weather prediction

AbstractIn numerical weather prediction (NWP), observations and models are quantitatively compared for the purposes of data assimilation and forecast verification. The spatial and temporal scales represented by the observation and model may differ and this results in a scale mismatch error which may be biased and correlated. The aim of this paper is to investigate the structure of representation error in convection‐permitting NWP models for four meteorological variables: temperature, specific humidity, zonal and meridional wind. We use high‐resolution data from the experimental Met Office London Model (approximately 300 m grid‐length) to simulate perfect observations and lower‐resolution model data. The scale mismatch error and its bias, variance and correlation are calculated from the perfect observation and low‐resolution model equivalents. Our new results show that the scale mismatch bias is significant in the boundary layer for temperature and specific humidity, whereas the variance is significant in the boundary layer for all analysed variables. Contrary to previous studies using low‐resolution (km‐scale) data, horizontal correlations are shown to be insignificant. However, all variables exhibit considerable vertical representation error correlation throughout the boundary layer. Our results suggest that significant biases and vertical correlations exist that should be accounted for to give maximum observation impact in data assimilation and for fairness in model verification and validation.

Advancing Maritime Transparent Cirrus Detection Using the Advanced Baseline Imager “Cirrus” Band

AbstractWe describe a quantitative evaluation of maritime transparent cirrus cloud detection, which is based on Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite – 16 (GOES-16) and developed with collocated Cloud-Aerosol Lidar with Orthogonal Polarization (CALIOP) profiling. The detection algorithm is developed using one month of collocated GOES-16 Advanced Baseline Imager (ABI) Channel 4 (1.378 μm) radiance and CALIOP 0.532 μm column-integrated cloud optical depth (COD). First, the relationships between the clear-sky 1.378 μm radiance, viewing/solar geometry, and precipitable water vapor (PWV) are characterized. Using machine learning techniques, it is shown that the total atmospheric pathlength, proxied by airmass factor (AMF), is a suitable replacement for viewing zenith and solar zenith angles alone, and that PWV is not a significant problem over ocean. Detection thresholds are computed using the Ch. 4 radiance as a function of AMF. The algorithm detects nearly 50% of sub-visual cirrus (COD < 0.03), 80% of transparent cirrus (0.03 < COD < 0.3), and 90% of opaque cirrus (COD > 0.3). Using a conservative radiance threshold results in 84% of cloudy pixels being correctly identified and 4% of clear-sky pixels being misidentified as cirrus. A semi-quantitative COD retrieval is developed for GOES ABI based on the observed relationship between CALIOP COD and 1.378 μm radiance. This study lays the groundwork for a more complex, operational GOES transparent cirrus detection algorithm. Future expansion includes an over-land algorithm, a more robust COD retrieval that is suitable for assimilation purposes, and downstream GOES products such as cirrus cloud microphysical property retrieval based on ABI infrared channels.

Statistical approaches to assimilate ASCAT soil moisture information—I. Methodologies and first assessment

AbstractLand surfaces are characterised by strong heterogeneities of soil texture, orography, land cover, soil moisture, snow, and other variables. The complexity of the surface properties is very challenging to represent accurately in radiative transfer models, which have a limited reliability over land, especially for observations such as given. This has resulted in difficulties in assimilating land‐surface related satellite observations in numerical weather prediction models. Simple statistical relationships between satellite observations and surface variables have therefore been considered in the last 20 years. In this study, we propose to compare two such approaches: cumulative distribution function (CDF)‐matching (used as a normalisation and an inversion technique) and neural network (NN) methods. CDF‐matching finds a simple monovariate relationship at the local scale and is very dependent on the land‐surface model (LSM) on which it is calibrated. NNs are global multivariate models able to exploit auxiliary information and the synergy of multiple instruments, but the solution is global and no local characteristics constrain the solution. One of these two methods will be better suited, depending on the application—in particular the simplicity of the satellite/variable relationship. We illustrate these concepts here using Advanced SCATerometer (ASCAT) observations for soil moisture (SM) retrieval in an assimilation context. The two approaches are compared and combined. We also compare the more traditional inversion scheme and forward modelling, which could be attractive for assimilation purposes. We show that, in the context of ASCAT, the inversion approach seems better suited than the forward modelling. We also show that it is possible to combine the global model obtained using the NN and the localised information of the LSM offered by CDF‐matching.

Application of Data Assimilation and the Relationship between ENSO and Precipitation

Climate change in Thailand is related to the El Niño and Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomenon, in particular drought and heavy precipitation. The data assimilation method is used to improve the accuracy of the Ensemble Intermediate Coupled Model (EICM) that simulates the sea surface temperature (SST). The four-dimensional variational (4D-Var) and three-dimensional variational (3D-Var) schemes have been used for data assimilation purposes. The simulation was performed by the model with and without data assimilation from satellite data in 2011. The result shows that the model with data assimilation is better than the model without data assimilation. The 4D-Var scheme is the best method, with a Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) of 0.492 and a Correlation Coefficient of 0.684. The relationship between precipitation in Thailand and the ENSO area in Niño 3.4 was consistent for seven months, with a correlation coefficient of −0.882.

РАЗВИТИЕ ИНОЯЗЫЧНОЙ КОММУНИКАТИВНОЙ КОМПЕТЕНЦИИ СТУДЕНТОВ СРЕДСТВАМИ ИГРОВЫХ ПРИЛОЖЕНИЙ

The standards of modern higher education determine the requirements for the preparation of a university graduate who speaks a foreign language and is competent in the field of intercultural communication. In this regard, in the field of linguistic education, the appeal to innovative technologies is being actualized, ensuring the improvement of foreign language communicative competence and increasing motivation for mastering a foreign language. The linguo-didactic potential of gaming applications is of particular interest to researchers. Foreign language communicative competence is the student’s ability and willingness to carry out foreign language intercultural and interpersonal communication in variable authentic spheres and situations. The development of linguistic, speech, socio-cultural, compensatory and educational components of foreign language communicative competence involves the deepening of knowledge, the formation of skills and abilities about all types of speech activity by means of reproductive, problem-search, project and game teaching methods. Learning through play by means of modern gaming applications creates a comfortable environment for active mastery of the language being studied. In the course of observations and experimental work, the linguo-didactic potential of the game applications “Memrise”, “The Phrasal Verbs Machine”, “Quizlet”, “Words, Sounds: Pronunciation App”, “Learn English with SpeakingPal” in the linguistic education of students was revealed, which is expressed in the possibilities their application for the purpose of purposeful assimilation of lexical and grammatical material and its further application in foreign language speech activity, ensuring the development of all components of foreign language communicative competence. The choice of game applications is due to the age characteristics of students, their cognitive interests, the level of foreign language proficiency, the specifics of the integration of synchronous and asynchronous independent work. The study found that the positive effect of using the considered game applications in the development of foreign language communicative competence is manifested in the successful mastering of language material, the development of communication skills, and increased motivation for the educational process in general.

A Dissonant Education: Marching Bands and Indigenous Musical Traditions at Sherman Institute, 1901–1940

At the end of the nineteenth century, the US government established a system of off-reservation boarding schools in an effort to assimilate Indigenous youth into the American nation-state. Music emerged as one of the most enduring strategies that these schools employed to reshape the cultural sensibilities of young Native Americans. A lively music culture could be found, for instance, at Sherman Institute in Riverside, California, which was home to a marching band and dozens of other music groups throughout its history. Although school officials created these institutions for the purposes of assimilation and cultural genocide, this music program often had a more ambiguous place in the lives of students. To understand the role of music within Sherman Institute during the early twentieth century, this article examines the school’s marching band and the place of Indigenous cultural expression. While the school had students march to the beat of civilization, young Native Americans found various strategies to combat assimilation using the same instruments. At the same time, they also used the cultures of their communities to navigate life in an environment that the government created to destroy those very cultures.

Assimilation of GPS Zenith Total Delay estimates in RAMS NWP model: Impact studies over central Italy

The purpose of the data assimilation is to use all the available information to determine as accurately as possible the state of the atmosphere. In this context we consider the assimilation of the GPS-ZTD (Global Positioning System – Zenith Total Delay) by a nudging scheme in Regional Atmospheric Modeling System at Institute of Atmospheric Sciences and Climate ([email protected]) at medium horizontal resolution (5 km). The water vapour mixing ratio (qv) given by the [email protected] is perturbed according to the differences between observed and simulated ZTD. To verify the impact of the GPS-ZTD data assimilation on the representation of the atmospheric humidity field, especially at the local scale, a numerical experiment was performed over central Italy area, over a one-month time frame. The studied network consists of 41 geodetic receivers and 3 single frequency receivers, this latter category of receivers has turned up more and more in marketing for the very low cost with respect to high level of performance. For what concerns all devices, processing was carried out in PPP (Precise Point Positioning) using goGPS, an Open Source Program Package for GNSS Positioning. For the application of PPP processing to single-frequency receivers, goSEID method (an alternative implementation of the SEID approach integrated in the goGPS open source software) was applied; the algorithm, starting from the observations of a unique (or more) dual frequency “reference” receiver, is able to generate L2 synthetic observations for any single frequency receiver located in its surroundings (15–20 km).

Методичні аспекти систематизації знань іноземних студентів на практичному занятті з теми «гістологічна техніка виготовлення мікропрепаратів » в курсі гістології днму

The discipline «Histology, cytology, embryology» is part of the basic disciplines and, therefore, is important not only from the point of view of obtaining specific theoretical and practical knowledge, but also from the point of formation of skills for independent work, and in the future– motivation for constant self-education. It is advisable to teach students not only the content of the subject, but also mental operations. One of the most important areas is the formation among medical students of the ability to systematize the results, make generalizations and evaluate their reliability and application limits, plan and conduct research. The purpose of this practical lesson it`s to fix in memory the technique of microscopic examination of a histological preparation, develop an idea of the nature and content of the main stages in preparation of a fixed and stained histological slides, get an idea of the «basophilia» and «oxyphilia» structures in the histological preparation. The learning process is impossible without remembering the basic facts, patterns, postulates, etc. The effectiveness of memorizing educational material depends on how logically it is connected with the knowledge that medical students already have and can be well understood by them. In this case, the teacher must seek arbitrary memorization. He indicates the goal of assimilation of certain information, identifies the main and secondary, stimulates the necessary motivation of the cognition process on the part of students. The conditions for successful memorization are: comprehension of educational material, mental activity and independence in work, constant use of the memorized, understanding of its significance, its reproduction in the process of repetition, and practical application of the studied. Correct systematization of students' learning activities allows the teacher to evaluate the knowledge, skills and abilities they receive, provide the necessary assistance on time and achieve the learning objectives. All this together creates favorable conditions for the development of cognitive abilities of students and the activation of their independent work in practical classes in histology. The learning process is impossible without memorizing the basic facts, schemes, postulates, etc. The effectiveness of memorizing educational material depends on how logically it is related to the knowledge already available to medical students and, perhaps, well understood by them. In this case, the teacher must seek arbitrary memorization. It indicates the purpose of assimilation of certain information, highlights the main and secondary, stimulates the necessary motivation of the learning process by students. Conditions for successful memorization are: comprehension of educational material, mental activity and independence in work, constant use of memorized, understanding of its significance, its reproduction in the process of repetition and practical application of the studied. Properly set systematization of students' learning activities allows the teacher to assess the knowledge, skills, abilities, to provide the necessary assistance in a timely manner and to achieve the goals of learning. All this together creates favorable conditions for the development of cognitive abilities of students and the activation of their independent work in practical classes in histology.

Soil Moisture Information Content in SMOS, SMAP, AMSR2, and ASCAT Level-1 Data Over Selected In Situ Sites

Microwave brightness temperature (Tb) and backscatter (σ <sup xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">0</sup> ) observations from the Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity (SMOS) mission, Soil Moisture Active Passive (SMAP) mission, Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer 2 (AMSR2) instrument, and Advanced Scatterometer (ASCAT) instrument provide a wealth of operationally available satellite data for soil moisture retrieval and data assimilation purposes. To assist the synergistic and efficient use of such techniques, the soil moisture information content in the respective Level-1 observations needs to be determined. Within this context, we compare L-, C-, and X-band Tb and σ <sup xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">0</sup> signatures of the above-named sensors to in situ SM observations in Spain, Australia, and USA. We find that L-band Tb observations from SMOS and SMAP show the best overall performance given the considered diagnostics (correlation, anomaly correlation, and sensitivity), while all sensors provide significant soil moisture information. This finding is consistent across the analyzed incidence angle range for SMOS (25°-60°). The results are discussed with respect to physical processes governing the dynamics of Tb and σ <sup xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">0</sup> , noting dependencies on vegetation seasonality and land surface temperature.