Assessment Of Occupational Stress Research Articles

Level of occupational stress, personality and traffic incidents: Comparative study of public and freight transport drivers

Abstract The matter of road safety is particularly important in modern transport systems. This is due to the fact that despite the high level of technical sophistication of transport safety systems, the number of road incidents is relatively high. Generally speaking, transport safety is understood as control over various possible traffic hazards. Road conditions or vehicles damage is not the only source of threat in transport. Drivers and their personality traits affect the occurrence of risk situations and impediments while driving on public roads. Professional drivers should especially be characterized by their efficiency in controlling their reactions because they are responsible not only for transported goods but also for other people. Subjective assessment of drivers’ personality and the level of occupational stress may impact not only on their functioning but also the quality of driving and safe behaviors on the road. For this reason, studies determining the relationship between personality traits and stress in professional drivers are important. The authors of the article attempted to define these relations using surveys among public and freight transport drivers (N=150). They represented two transport companies from the Lublin City: Miejskie Przedsiebiorstwo Komunikacji (City Bus Company) and Poczta Polska (Polish Mail). Eysenck Impulsiveness-Venturesomeness-Empathy Questionnaire (Eysenck, 2006) and Questionnaire for Subjective Assessment of Work (Dudek et. al, 2004) were used in the study. Based on the above-mentioned questionnaires, statistical analyses were carried out using specialized statistical software SPSS Statistics, based on which the relationship between personality traits and the subjective assessment of occupational stress were determined. The results showed that there are statistically significant differences between research groups and there is a positive correlation between personality traits and work stress. Finally, there was also found the correlation between different types of traffic incidents.

DECORE-21: Assessment of occupational stress in police. Confirmatory factor analysis of the original model.

There is scarce research on stress in Spanish police officers and on the use of instruments to assess this construct in this professional group. In Spain, the DECORE questionnaire has been one of the most used. Nevertheless, it had not been previously applied to police officers. The aim of this study was to analyze both the construct validity and the reliability of the original model of 44 items. A cross-sectional design and a non-probabilistic quota sampling were used. A total of 223 Spanish police officers participated. 202 police personnel were men (90.6%) and 21 were women (9.4%). The average age was 41 years old (SD = 7.52). These police officers answered the DECORE questionnaire. Confirmatory Factor Analysis was carried out. The results showed an unsatisfactory adjustment using the original model of 44 items. A final solution of 21 items and four factors was formulated with both suitable validity and reliability indexes. In this model, 23 items that did not weigh highly in any of the four factors were removed. The DECORE-21 questionnaire is recommended to assess work-related stress in police officers.

Job support, coping, and control: Assessment of simultaneous impacts within the occupational stress process.

The assessment of occupational stress is marred by an overwhelming adoption of simplistic research designs that generally fail to represent the complex reality of the occupational stress process. Informed by the theoretical tenants of both the transactional stress model and the job-demands-control-support model, this paper presents a rare simultaneous assessment of how two types of job demands (cognitive and emotional) are both moderated by job control and social support and mediated by coping for the prediction of work engagement and psychological strain over time. Self-report surveys were administered twice over 12 months to a sample of police-service workers and moderated mediation analyses were conducted on the matched sample of N = 2,481 respondents. The results offer support for the process of occupational stress by demonstrating how both accommodation and avoidance coping mediate the job-demands-outcome relationship over time. The results also demonstrate that this stressor-coping-strain process is simultaneously moderated by job support or job control. We found it interesting that this research also demonstrated that the estimation of work engagement was not unduly influenced by the type of job demands these police employees were exposed to. (PsycINFO Database Record

Assessment of occupational stress among farmers in Aurangabad district, Maharashtra

Background: Since many years Indian farming community, especially farmers from drought prone areas have been under constant occupational stress. This research study was conducted in Aurangabad district of Maharashtra, which has witnessed a sizeable number of farmer’s deaths in recent years, to find out which component of stress was contributing more and affecting the lives of the farmers.Methods: A community based descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted during 2016 in two most affected blocks of Aurangabad where the highest incidence of farmer suicide attempt cases occurred. A stratified random sample of 120 farmers from three strata viz. small, medium and large, from six most affected villages of two Blocks were interviewed with a standard, duly modified, pre-tested farm stress inventory questionnaire which includes questions on various stress related factors such as financial stress, farming hassles, weather stress, work overload and other people as stressor.Results: The results of study revealed that while farming occupation encompasses all types of stresses to farmers, the study area farmers were experiencing unpredictable weather and financial problems as major stress factors. The study also revealed that the differences of stress levels on various factors were statistically significant when compared to size of landholding of the farmers - small farmers were most susceptible.Conclusions: The present study concluded that weather and financial stresses were the most significant as compared to other components of stress for farmers. Weather fluctuations and unpredictability leads to significant effects on the production of crop and which is directly related to the annual income of the farmers, hence policy makers, agricultural scientists, marketing and financial experts create a suitable environment for farmers to overcome these stressors.

Heart rate variability and occupational stress-systematic review.

The aim of this systematic review was to explore studies regarding association between occupational stress and heart rate variability (HRV) during work. We searched PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, Cinahl and PsycINFO for peer-reviewed articles published in English between January 2005 and September 2017. A total of 10 articles met the inclusion criteria. The included articles were analyzed in terms of study design, study population, assessment of occupational stress and HRV, and the study limitations. Among the studies there were cross-sectional (n=9) studies and one longitudinal study design. Sample size varied from 19 to 653 participants and both females and males were included. The most common assessment methods of occupational stress were the Job Content Questionnaire (JCQ) and the Effort-Reward Imbalance (ERI) questionnaire. HRV was assessed using 24 h or longer Holter ECG or HR monitoring and analyzed mostly using standard time-domain and frequency-domain parameters. The main finding was that heightened occupational stress was found associated with lowered HRV, specifically with reduced parasympathetic activation. Reduced parasympathetic activation was seen as decreases in RMSSD and HF power, and increase in LF/HF ratio. The assessment and analysis methods of occupational stress and HRV were diverse.

Occupational stress and burnout among Hong Kong dentists.

Professional burnout has been described as a gradual erosion of a person and may be one of the possible consequences of chronic occupational stress. Although occupational stress has been surveyed among dentists in Hong Kong, no study has been published about burnout in the profession. This study aimed to evaluate burnout among Hong Kong dentists and its association with occupational stress. We surveyed a random sample of 1086 registered dentists in Hong Kong, which formed 50% of the local profession. They were mailed an anonymous questionnaire about burnout and occupational stress in 2015. The questionnaire assessed occupational stress, coping strategies, effects of stress, level of burnout, and socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents. Occupational stress assessment concerned 33 stressors in five groups: patient-related, time-related, income-related, job-related, and staff-/technically related. Level of burnout was assessed by the Maslach Burnout Inventory-Human Services Survey (22 items) with three scores: emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation, and personal accomplishment. Completed questionnaires were received from 301 dentists (response rate, 28.3%), of whom 25.4% had a high level of emotional exhaustion, 17.2% had a high level of depersonalisation, and 39.0% had a low level of personal accomplishment. Only 7.0% of respondents, however, had a high level of overall burnout (high emotional exhaustion, high depersonalisation, and low personal accomplishment). A high level of overall burnout was significantly associated with a higher mean score for job-related stressors and lack of postgraduate qualifications (P<0.05). Patient-related stressors are the top occupational stressors experienced by dentists in Hong Kong. In spite of this, a low proportion of dentists have a high level of overall burnout. There was a positive association between occupational stress and level of burnout.

Assessment of Occupational Stress and Associated Factors Among Nurses in East Gojjam Zone Public Hospitals Northwest Ethiopia, 2016

Background: Occupational stress has been reported to affect job satisfaction among nurses, thus compromising nursing care and placing patients’ lives at risk. Nursing has been identified and reported by a number of studies as a stressful occupation. Occupational stress is a serious condition for nursing professionals that is directly associated with impaired and inappropriate performance and working within clinical settings. Objective: To assess the level of occupational stress and associated factors among nurses in East Gojjam Zone Public hospitals northwest Ethiopia 2016. Method: Institutional based cross-sectional study design was employed. Sampling method was simple random sampling and data were collected from March 8 to 23, 2016. Source population of the study were all nurses who work at public hospitals in East Gojjam zone public hospitals and sample size was 181 nurses from the four hospitals. After nurses were proportionally allocated to size from the four hospitals, data were collected through pretested self-administered structured questionnaire. Results: A total of 178 nurses were voluntarily agreed to participate in the study with a response rate of 98.3%. The study finding showed that 57.3% of nurses were occupationally stressful. Workload subscale was the most sources of stress followed by death and dying and uncertainty concerning treatment. Sex and work experience of respondents were significantly associated with occupational stress. All subscales of expanded nursing stress scale were positively correlated with over overall occupational stress. Conclusion: More than half of the nurses were occupationally stressful. Recommendation: The Amhara regional health bureau and study hospitals should develop stress reduction management programs.

The impact of stress on occupational burnout among miners

INTRODUCTION Existence of stress at workplace leads to the occurrence of occupational burnout among miners. OBJECTIVE is testing of influence of stress on occupational burnout among miners. METHODS The research was designed as a cross-sectional study and covered 345 subjects, which were classified into three groups: two investigated groups, consisting of Miners A (142), Miners B (147) and Control group (56) consisting of administrative workers. The research was conducted in the Health Center Zveč an, in the Medical Laboratory Service in Zvečan and at the Institute of Occupational Medicine in Niš. The following questionnaires were used in the study: Questionnaire on basic sociodemographic indicators of respondents, Copenhagen Burnout Inventory (CBI), and Occupational stress assessment questionnaire. Data analysis was performed using the SPSS 16.0 software package. RESULTS The study of the presence of stressors in the workplace compared to the examined groups showed that a large number of stressors were evident, with the average value of all stressors at miners 2.60 ± 1.02, which is significantly above the average value of all stressors in the control group 1.85 ± 1.02. Above the total average of all stressors 2.60 ± 1.02, there is a large number of stressors. All stressors statistically significantly higher in miners compared to the control group (p <0.001) and the values of each individual stressor in the control group are below the average values of all stressors in miners (2.60 ± 1.02). High burnout level is present in 50.70% of Miners A, 46.90% of Miners B and 16.10% of Control group subjects. It was found that there is a statistically significant difference in the incidence of high burnout in relation to the investigated groups (p <0.001). DISCUSSION There is a large number of stressors among miners and their average value is significantly above the average value of all stressors in the control group. The stressors are both quantitatively and qualitatively different in relation to the control group. A large number of high-strength stressors significantly increases the probability of stress in both groups of miners and contributes to the occurrence of occupational burnout. There is a high exposure to stress among miners, and the impact of stress on occupational burnout has been proven in a large number of research in different professions. This was also confirmed in miners, among whom high exposure to stress led to high occupational burnout, which is statistically significant in relation to the control group. CONCLUSION The results of the study showed that there are a large number of stressors in the miner groups, that the average value of all stressors in miners is significantly above the average value of all stressors in the control group, that there are a large number of stressors that are in strength above the total average of all mining stressors and that all stressors are statistically significantly higher in miners than in the control group. The strongest stressors are most important for stress, and the presence of a large number of stressors above the total average of all stressors not only increases the probability of stress, but also proves a great deal of stress, but also contributes to the intense occurrence of occupational burnout. The results of the study have shown that high burnout is present in about 50% of miners in both mines and that there is a statistically significant difference in the incidence of high burnout in relation to the control group. Occupational stress affects occupational burnout among miners.

Evaluation of Professional Anxiety and Stress Among medical and Paramedical Staff in Anaesthesia Department

Introduction Stress is one of major growing mental problems among highly educated professionals and it should not be ignored as it can cause many other health issues. Objectives Assess the level of stress and anxiety among anesthesia staff and identify various stress factors. Methods Cross-sectional study, including 54 participants (16 medical staff and 38 paramedics) working in an anesthesia department. Data collection was performed using a form comprising: socio-demographic characteristics, Karasek questionnaire for the assessment of occupational stress and Hamilton scale for measuring anxiety. Results Mean number of years of work 16.2. Psychiatric history reported in 13%. Factors considered as generators of stress: important requirements 74.1%, fear of medical error 44.4%, low number of the staff 68.5% and harmful environment 72.2%. Karasek questionnaire:mean scale of decision latitude 69 points, psychological demands 23.9 and social support 19.6. 42.6% were 'active”, 40.7% were in 'high job strain”, 13% estimated 'passive” and 3.7% were in 'low job strain”. 38.9% were in 'isostrain” situation. The mean Hamilton scale 17.7 points, psychic anxiety 9 and somatic anxiety 8.7. Anxiety was mild in 61.1% of cases, moderate 16.7% and severe 22.2%. Hamilton scale was positively correlated to: age (p=0.019), number of years of work (p=0.003) and psychiatric follow-up care (p=0.022). Conclusion Anesthesia is a specialty in which the practitioner is often confronted by stressful situations, leading to a state of stress and emotional exhaustion. If this situation is poorly managed, it can cause a burnout. Hence, a better understanding of these stressful situations is a priority.

Role of socio-economic status in the assessment of occupational stress

Literature shows that, the last three decades have seen a rapid increase in research on occupational stress among people coming from various sections of the society. Numerous studies have been carried out in the developed world, and the interest in this field continues to persist. Unfortunately, there is dearth of work that talks about the relation between occupational stress and socio-economic status in most of the developing societies. Therefore, current study aims to contribute to a better understanding of this relationship. Determine the variation of occupational stress with socio-economic status. A cross sectional study was conducted in the town of Shimla, which has an estimated working population of 84, 615 as per 2011 census. Data was collected by two self report measures. The participants included professionals, semi-professionals, clerks/supervisors/shop-owners/farmers, skilled, semi-skilled and unskilled workers in various professions of the selected area. Sample size was calculated by using the standard formula for cross sectional studies at 95% confidence interval (using the criteria of prevalence from earlier studies). Standardized tools of a five point rating scale and a proforma were utilized to assess the occupational stress and, socio-economic status of the participants, respectively. Data obtained on the two variables was analyzed by descriptive statistics and Pearson's correlation. A total of 252 participants was the final sample of this study. About 86.11% (217/252) of the workers were found to belong to the categories of moderate and high levels of stress. Socio-economic grade 2 had the maximum number of participants i.e. 45.24%. A negative and significant correlation was found between occupational stress and socio-economic status. In comparison to the other categories of occupation, skilled workers experienced higher levels of stress, followed by clerks/supervisors/shop-owners, semi-skilled workers, unskilled workers, semi-professionals and, professionals, respectively. The findings suggest that, the assessment and management of occupational stress should consider socio-economic status and occupation of individuals as significant determinants of stress at work, along with other bio-psycho-social factors.

Workers occupational stress problem in selected industry

Occupational stress becomes an important agenda for managers and management scholars nowadays and it will remain in the future. Occupational stress is receiving increasing attention in the academic literature and has become a salient issue for the organisations. Occupational stress is the harmful physical and emotional responses. Job life is one of the important parts of our daily lives which cause a great deal of stress. This study is an initiative to explore how does stress stressors influences on work life of workers in contemporary jute mills in Bangladesh. Study reveals that working conditions, environmental conditions, role ambiguity, organisational structure, home–work–interface, etc. are the greatest source of stress and workers perceived that working environment and home work interface have perceived as top most stressors of jute mills in Bangladesh. It is statistically significant that there is no perceived difference in stress level of two stressors, i.e., environmental conditions and home–work–interface of jute mills in Bangladesh. After assessment of occupational stress, a module of stress management technique is given for stress reduction.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN OCCUPATIONAL STRESS AND WORK ABILITY AMONG MIDWIVES IN MASHHAD, IRAN

Background: Occupational stress is one of the key factors in reducing staff productivity in organizations with physical and psychological impacts on employees. Nursing and midwifery are among the most stressful professions. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the relationship between occupational stress and work ability of midwives in Mashhad, Iran in 2011. Methods: This cross-sectional study was carried on 123 midwives employed in the public hospitals and health centres in Mashhad, Iran using two-stage sampling method. Demographic and work-related data were obtained through a self-structured questionnaire. Occupational stress and work ability were measured using Occupational Stress Assessment Questionnaire (OSAQ) and Work Ability Index Questionnaire (WAIQ). The statistical analysis was performed using student’s t-test, One Way ANOVA, correlation coefficient, and linear regression model through SPSS statistical software (version 11.5). Results: The results showed that the mean score of occupational stress and work ability was 149 ± 0.01 and 38.81±0.05, respectively. There was a negative correlation between job-related stress and work ability. Midwives with higher occupational stress experienced poorer work ability (P=0.021, r=-0.061). Conclusion: Sever work stress is associated with reduced work ability. So it is recommended to eliminate or decrease occupational stress and increase work ability among Iranian midwives using preventive measures, although identification of sources of occupational stress seems necessary in order to adopt appropriate stress management strategies.

Physician Burnout and Its Associated Factors: A Cross‐sectional Study in Shanghai

The aim of this study was to determine the rate of burnout and the contributing factors behind it among physicians in Shanghai. In this cross-sectional study, a total of 457 physicians from 21 hospitals in Shanghai completed self-reported questionnaires in June 2008. The Chinese version of the job content questionnaire (C-JCQ) and the Chinese version of the effort-reward imbalance questionnaire (C-ERI) were used to measure occupational stress. The Chinese version of Maslach Burnout Inventory (C-MBI) was used to measure burnout rate. We then performed regression analysis of physician burnout. The MBI model revealed that 277 physicians (60.6%) were experiencing a mild degree of burnout and that 27 physicians (5.9%) were experiencing a severe degree of burnout. In the assessment of occupational stress, most physicians (64.8%) had a demand/control ratio higher than 1, and 21.9% of all physicians had an effort/reward ratio higher than 1, indicating a high level of occupational stress exposure. Regression analyses showed higher levels of burnout among physicians of younger age, less work experience, longer working hours, on shift duty, or from highergrade hospitals. Both the JCQ and ERI models showed good predictive power for physician burnout, with the ERI model performing better. Physicians in Shanghai were experiencing a high degree of burnout, which was significantly associated with occupational stress as well as distinctive personal and work characteristics. Interventions aiming at reducing job-related stress can be effective approaches to prevent burnout among physicians.

Predictors of lower work ability among emergency medicine employees: the Croatian experience

BackgroundWorldwide research has indicated that emergency medicine employees and particularly ambulance personnel have symptoms related to traumatic events, and experience more chronic stressors in their work than workers in other...

Validity of occupational stress assessment using a visual analogue scale

The visual analogue scale (VAS) is empirically used by occupational physicians to assess stress but very few studies have been published about its quantitative validation. To assess the external validity of the VAS for the assessment of stress in the clinical occupational health setting by comparing its scores with the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) of Cohen. An anonymous self-completed questionnaire (PSS14) and the VAS were filled in by a random sample of 360 workers from several occupational health centres. No difference between the mean scores of PSS14 and stress VAS was found. The equation of the linear regression was 'VAS score = -0.18 + 1008 × PSS14 score'. A VAS score of 7.0 was identified as having the best sensitivity/specificity ratio (0.74 and 0.93, respectively) for identifying those with 'high stress' using the PSS cut-off score of 7.2, using a receiver operator curve approach. Our results support an acceptable agreement between the two tests, meaning that the two tools assess the same psychological construct. The good sensitivity/specificity ratio and the area under the curve close to 1 provide evidence that a VAS is suitable to help the occupational physician detect a high level of stress. The use of a VAS for stress assessment seems to be meaningful, suitable and useful for occupational physicians.

Work‐related stress, education and work ability among hospital nurses

This paper is a report of a study conducted to determine which occupational stressors are present in nurses' working environment; to describe and compare occupational stress between two educational groups of nurses; to estimate which stressors and to what extent predict nurses' work ability; and to determine if educational level predicts nurses' work ability. Nurses' occupational stress adversely affects their health and nursing quality. Higher educational level has been shown to have positive effects on the preservation of good work ability. A cross-sectional study was conducted in 2006-2007. Questionnaires were distributed to a convenience sample of 1392 (59%) nurses employed at four university hospitals in Croatia (n = 2364). The response rate was 78% (n = 1086). Data were collected using the Occupational Stress Assessment Questionnaire and Work Ability Index Questionnaire. We identified six major groups of occupational stressors: 'Organization of work and financial issues', 'public criticism', 'hazards at workplace', 'interpersonal conflicts at workplace', 'shift work' and 'professional and intellectual demands'. Nurses with secondary school qualifications perceived Hazards at workplace and Shift work as statistically significantly more stressful than nurses a with college degree. Predictors statistically significantly related with low work ability were: Organization of work and financial issues (odds ratio = 1.69, 95% confidence interval 122-236), lower educational level (odds ratio = 1.69, 95% confidence interval 122-236) and older age (odds ratio = 1.07, 95% confidence interval 1.05-1.09). Hospital managers should develop strategies to address and improve the quality of working conditions for nurses in Croatian hospitals. Providing educational and career prospects can contribute to decreasing nurses' occupational stress levels, thus maintaining their work ability.

Work-related stress and work ability among Croatian university hospital midwives

Objective to explore the sources and levels of stress at work and work ability among Croatian midwives. Background midwives are subjected to multiple stressors. Among health-care professionals, psychological distress for a prolonged period of time has negative effects on the worker's health, work ability and quality of patient care. ‘Work ability’ is a term describing a worker's resources related to physical, mental and social demands at work. As a measure of work ability in midwifery, the Work Ability Index (WAI) is considered to be a very predictive instrument; midwives with a poor WAI score usually leave their current job within five years. Setting university hospitals in Zagreb, Croatia. Design cross-sectional design survey. Participants 300 health-care workers (105 qualified midwives and 195 paediatric nurses) were invited to complete the questionnaire. The total response rate was 53% (158/300). The sample included 14.7% of all hospital-based midwives in Zagreb hospitals. Methods the Occupational Stress Assessment Questionnaire (OSAQ) for health-care workers and the WAI questionnaire. Findings over three-quarters of the midwives (46/60, 76.7%) believed that their job was stressful, and considered that insufficient work resources caused the most stress. More than half of the midwives associated an insufficient number of coworkers, unexpected situations, inadequate income, night work, incurable patients and poor organisation at work with a high level of stress. The perceived specific stressors differed between midwives and paediatric nurses in the same hospital. Insufficient work resources and poor organisation at work were more common stressors among midwives than paediatric nurses ( p<0.05). Midwives and nurses differed significantly with respect to age ( p=0.002). Midwives were younger and had spent fewer years working in their current workplace compared with paediatric nurses ( p<0.001). Also, midwives had a lower level of education than paediatric nurses ( p=0.044). The mean WAI score for midwives was 40.0 [95% confidence interval (CI) 38.4–41.4], compared with 37.5 (95% CI 36.4–38.8) for paediatric nurses, both indicating good work ability. After adjusting for age, the difference in WAI score between the groups of workers was not significant. Conclusions Croatian midwives experienced work-related stress due to: insufficient work resourses, insufficient number of coworkers, poor organisation at work, communication with superiors and emotional work. Midwives’ work ability in relation to the demands of their job was good. These results confirmed that the WAI score decreases significantly with age. Implications for practice hospital management needs to improve organisational factors and resources, as well as midwives’ education and position in the health-care system.

Stress and Work Ability in Oil Industry Workers

This cross-sectional study conducted between March and June 2006 examined stress at work and work ability of 180 people with different workplaces within an oil company. Office, laboratory, and oil-field workers were invited to complete the "Occupational Stress Assessment Questionnaire--the Oil Industry Version and Work Ability Index (WAI) Questionnaire". The overall response rate was 69.4%, and the final sample size was 125 workers who completed the questionnaires (57 office, 41 laboratory, 27 oil-field workers). Office, laboratory, and oil-field workers differed significantly with respect to age (P<0.001). The oldest were oil-field workers and the youngest were office workers. The average WAI score for office workers was 44.9, for laboratory workers 43.2 and for field workers 39.7, indicating satisfying work ability. After adjusting for age, the difference in WAI score between the groups of workers was still significant (P<0.001). Over 75% of all workers believed their job was stressful, but the perception of specific stressors depended on the workplace.

Risk assessment of occupational stress: Extensions of the Clarke and Cooper approach

For an organization to prevent occupational stress problems, it is necessary to correctly diagnose the characteristics of the work and employment conditions that are perceived as risks by employees and to investigate the consequences of these risks. Clarke and Cooper propose a methodology to assess which organizational factors pose the highest levels of risk to the well-being of employees. A level of risk is calculated based on the exposure level of a hazard and on the level of negative consequences associated with this exposure. The methodology has proven to be useful to prioritize and target specific areas for interventions. The present study introduced significant developments to this methodology by incorporating a coping dimension into the formula in order to better reflect the theoretical stress model. Tested on a sample of employees from a hospital centre (N = 1229), the introduction of coping strategies in the computation of risk level increases the strength of the relationship between risk exposure and outcomes, illustrating that the improved formula constitutes a more precise method to assess risk.

Encyclopedia of forensic sciences

Encyclopedia of forensic sciences