Assessment Of Ecosystem Function Research Articles

Assessment of ecosystem functions of public green spaces in the city of Berezhany, Ternopil region

Researching the possibilities of using modern approaches and tools for evaluating the ecosystem services of green spaces is relevant and requires theoretical justification and applied research, especially in the context of the importance of ensuring the sustainable development of Ukraine. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to work out the procedure of quantitative and cost evaluation of ecosystem services of green spaces for public use and search for opportunities to present the received information to stakeholders. For this, an inventory of green spaces was carried out with the measurement of their biometric and sanitary indicators. For quantitative and cost assessment of the ecosystem functions of plantations and individual trees, the i-Tree Eco toolkit was used, and the Google My Maps application was used for their visualization. The conducted study helped obtain information about individual ecosystem functions of green spaces (reduction of pollutants, carbon absorption and sequestration, oxygen production volumes and regulation of surface water flows). As part of this utility, the annual ecosystem function for the absorption of 770 kilograms of harmful compounds (ozone, carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, and particles of various sizes) was calculated, which is estimated at UAH 128,648,000 annually; reduction of air pollution by 7.43 metric tonnes of gross carbon sequestration (19 kg per 1 plant), with an estimated cost of UAH 41,028,000 and a reduction of water runoff by 684.9 cubic meters, which is estimated at UAH 47,042 of annual utility. Furthermore, as of the moment of the study, the researched green spaces retain carbon in their tissues, which creates an ecosystem benefit in the amount of UAH 1,493,009 thousand (€36,901). The highest indicators of ecosystem usefulness are inherent in park stands, while the trees and bushes of the central part of the city are more effective in absorbing pollutants. Trees capable of achieving significant biometric indicators in local conditions are characterized by greater ecosystem productivity. The conducted study creates conditions for better awareness of the ecosystem value of green spaces, but its popularization is also important. The practical value of the results also lies in the possibility of bringing them to authorities, enterprises, and organizations, activists and other stakeholders, which will create conditions for improving environmental awareness, promoting the security and protection of tree stands, improving management and making informed decisions in the field of green construction

Assessment of ecosystem functions of green spaces as an important component of their inventory in the context of sustainable development of urban landscapes

An important area of research in the context of ensuring the sustainable development of urban ecosystems is the development of theoretical and applied aspects of the possibilities of obtaining information about the ecosystem usefulness of green spaces. The concept of evaluating and paying for eco-services that produce trees and shrubs for the environment and society is characterised by substantial international interest. In this context, it is important to analyse modern tools and techniques that can adequately determine and evaluate the amount of ecosystem services, which was the main goal of the study. In this paper, the possibility of using the i-Tree Eco tools for quantitative and cost determination of the volume of ecosystem services created by park spaces in the green space inventory process is tested. For this purpose, on the example of the prefix part of the Rayivskyy landscape park of the Ternopil region, the measurement of biometric and sanitary indicators of trees during their inventory was conducted, a number of ecosystem services of plants were determined (reduction of pollutants, absorption and sequestration of carbon, oxygen production, and regulation of avoided runoff), the replacement cost of trees was established, the data obtained were analysed, the interpretation of the information received in the form of an interactive electronic map was performed, and the advantages and disadvantages of this process were determined. The study showed that the cost of ecosystem services (in the context of the indicators under study) for the attached part of the Rayivskyy landscape park is 81894 UAH (€3044) per year, and the total replacement cost of the examined plantings is 4486,464 thousand UAH (€166,783). The monetised expression of the ecosystem utility of this plantation creates conditions for improving the understanding of the value of the phytocenosis for urban landscapes. The practical value of the study is the possibility of using its results to improve and increase the information content of the green space inventory process, by obtaining information about ecosystem services of trees in quantitative and cost terms to increase the validity of decisions in the field of nature management

Assessment of ecosystem functions of urban forests in terms of soil and trees

Forests in the cities of the Angara region (Irkutsk, Angarsk, Usolye-Sibirskoye), exposed to aerotechnogenic pollution and recreational load of varying degrees of intensity, were surveyed. In pine and pine-birch forests on natural gray forest soils, 27 sample plots were studied. The current state of the urban environment was assessed by a set of morphostructural, physico-chemical and toxicological indicators of tree plantations (pine, larch, birch) and gray forest soils - the main habitat-forming components. For the first time on the basis of the obtained data and assessment of ecosystem functions of soil cover and tree plantations the results of studies on purification of atmospheric air and preservation of phyto-pedocenoses in the urban environment are presented. The study of biogeochemical redistribution of flows of aerotechnogenic pollutants in urban forests revealed the degree of manifestation of the most important ecosystem function of the soil cover - the ability to accumulate and detoxify man-made pollutants and the function of woody plants - the ability to clean atmospheric air by accumulating toxicants in the needles and leaves. The results obtained made it possible to judge about the sustainability of woody plants and soils of urban forests, about the possibility of purification and restoration of the urban environment.

Using the Geodetector Method to Characterize the Spatiotemporal Dynamics of Vegetation and Its Interaction with Environmental Factors in the Qinba Mountains, China

Understanding the driving mechanisms of vegetation development is critical for maintaining terrestrial ecosystem function in mountain areas, especially under the background of climate change. The Qinba Mountains (QBM), a critical north–south transition zone in China, is an environmentally fragile area that is vulnerable to climate change. It is essential to characterize how its ecological environment has changed. Currently, such a characterization remains unclear in the spatiotemporal patterns of the nonlinear effects and interactions between environmental factors and vegetation changes in the QBM. Here, we utilized the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), obtained from Google Earth Engine (GEE) platform, as an indicator of terrestrial ecosystem conditions. Then, we measured the spatiotemporal heterogeneity for vegetation variation in the QBM from 2003 to 2018. Specifically, the Geodetector method, a new geographically statistical method without linear assumptions, was employed to detect the interaction between vegetation and environmental driving factors. The results indicated that there is a trend of a general increase in vegetation growth amplitude (the average NDVI increased from 0.810 to 0.858). The areas with an NDVI greater than 0.8 are mainly distributed in the Qinling Mountains and the Daba Mountains, which account for more than 76.39% of the QBM area. For the entire region, the global Moran’s index of the NDVI is greater than 0.95, indicating that vegetation is highly concentrated in the spatial domain. The Geodetector identified that landform type was the primary factor in controlling vegetation changes, contributing 24.19% to the total variation, while the explanatory powers of the aridity index and the wetness index for vegetation changes were 22.49% and 21.47%, respectively. Furthermore, the interaction effects between any two factors outperformed the influence of a single environmental variable. The interaction between air temperature and the aridity index was the most significant element, contributing to 47.10% of the vegetation variation. These findings can not only improve our understanding in the interactive effects of environmental forces on vegetation change, but also be a valuable reference for ecosystem management in the QBM area, such as ecological conservation planning and the assessment of ecosystem functions.

Omics-based ecosurveillance for the assessment of ecosystem function, health, and resilience.

Current environmental monitoring efforts often focus on known, regulated contaminants ignoring the potential effects of unmeasured compounds and/or environmental factors. These specific, targeted approaches lack broader environmental information and understanding, hindering effective environmental management and policy. Switching to comprehensive, untargeted monitoring of contaminants, organism health, and environmental factors, such as nutrients, temperature, and pH, would provide more effective monitoring with a likely concomitant increase in environmental health. However, even this method would not capture subtle biochemical changes in organisms induced by chronic toxicant exposure. Ecosurveillance is the systematic collection, analysis, and interpretation of ecosystem health-related data that can address this knowledge gap and provide much-needed additional lines of evidence to environmental monitoring programs. Its use would therefore be of great benefit to environmental management and assessment. Unfortunately, the science of ‘ecosurveillance’, especially omics-based ecosurveillance is not well known. Here, we give an overview of this emerging area and show how it has been beneficially applied in a range of systems. We anticipate this review to be a starting point for further efforts to improve environmental monitoring via the integration of comprehensive chemical assessments and molecular biology-based approaches. Bringing multiple levels of omics technology-based assessment together into a systems-wide ecosurveillance approach will bring a greater understanding of the environment, particularly the microbial communities upon which we ultimately rely to remediate perturbed ecosystems.

Ecosystem functions in different physiognomies of Cerrado through the Rapid Ecosystem Function Assessment (REFA).

The assessment of ecosystem functions in Cerrado is important to implement practices of conservation. Recently, a 'rapid ecosystem function assessment' (REFA) for measuring ecosystem functions has been proposed and tested as a suitable method. Thus, this study aimed to assess the proxies of ecosystem functions of three physiognomies of Cerrado through REFA. This method was applied in three different preserved physiognomies of Cerrado from Northeastern, Brazil, namely: Campo Graminoide (CG), Cerrado Stricto Sensu (CSS), and Cerradão (CD). All proxies for the selected ecosystem functions differed between sites and seasons. The above- and belowground primary productivity and microbial biomass C were higher in CD than in CSS and CG. The above- and belowground secondary productivity and decomposition were higher and similar in CD and CSS as compared to CG. The principal component analysis explained 89.8% of the data variation and clustered the majority of ecosystem functions with CD, in both seasons and CSS in the wet season. The proxies of ecosystem functions measured through REFA showed differences between the physiognomies of Cerrado. Since each physiognomy of Cerrado presents different plant richness and diversity, and soil conditions, these characteristics contribute to influencing multiple ecosystem functions.

Saltwater and nutrient legacies reduce net ecosystem carbon storage despite freshwater restoration: insights from experimental wetlands

Net ecosystem carbon balance is a comprehensive assessment of ecosystem function that can test restoration effectiveness. Coastal peatlands are globally important carbon sinks that are vulnerable to carbon loss with saltwater intrusion. It is uncertain how wetland carbon stocks and fluxes change during freshwater restoration following exposure to saltwater and elevated nutrients. We restored freshwater to sawgrass (Cladium jamaicense) peat monoliths from freshwater marshes of the Everglades (Florida, U.S.A.) that had previously been exposed to elevated salinity (approximately9 ppt) and phosphorus (P) loading (1 g P m−2 year−1) in wetland mesocosms. We quantified changes in water and soil physicochemistry, plant and soil carbon and nutrient standing stocks, and net ecosystem productivity during restoration. Added freshwater immediately reduced porewater salinity from >8 to approximately 2 ppt, but elevated porewater dissolved organic carbon persisted. Above‐ and belowground biomass, leaf P concentrations, and instantaneous rates of gross ecosystem productivity (GEP) and ecosystem respiration (ER) remained elevated from prior added P. Modeled monthly GEP and ER were higher in marshes with saltwater and P legacies, resulting in negative net ecosystem productivities that were up to 12× lower than controls. Leaf litter breakdown rates and litter P concentrations were 2× higher in marshes with legacies of added saltwater and P. Legacies of saltwater and P on carbon loss persisted despite freshwater restoration, but recovery was greatest for freshwater marshes exposed to saltwater alone. Our results suggest that restoration in nutrient‐limited freshwater wetlands exposed to saltwater intrusion and nutrient enrichment is a slow process.

Environmental DNA provides higher resolution assessment of riverine biodiversity and ecosystem function via spatio-temporal nestedness and turnover partitioning

Rapidly assessing biodiversity is essential for environmental monitoring; however, traditional approaches are limited in the scope needed for most ecological systems. Environmental DNA (eDNA) based assessment offers enhanced scope for assessing biodiversity, while also increasing sampling efficiency and reducing processing time, compared to traditional methods. Here we investigated the effects of landuse and seasonality on headwater community richness and functional diversity, via spatio-temporal dynamics, using both eDNA and traditional sampling. We found that eDNA provided greater resolution in assessing biodiversity dynamics in time and space, compared to traditional sampling. Community richness was seasonally linked, peaking in spring and summer, with temporal turnover having a greater effect on community composition compared to localized nestedness. Overall, our assessment of ecosystem function shows that community formation is driven by regional resource availability, implying regional management requirements should be considered. Our findings show that eDNA based ecological assessment is a powerful, rapid and effective assessment strategy that enables complex spatio-temporal studies of community diversity and ecosystem function, previously infeasible using traditional methods.

Ranking the Key Forest Habitats in Ecosystem Function Provision: Case Study from Morava River Basin

Floodplain forests are considered important forest ecosystems, and providers of ecosystem functions and services. The subject of this research was to assess the level of provision of five selected ecosystem functions (climate regulation and regulation of short water cycle, biomass production, oxygen production, and carbon sequestration) and biodiversity by relevant groups of forest habitats, and their mutual comparison. Assessment of ecosystem functions was performed in biophysical units based on published data, our own research, and expert knowledge. The results showed the high importance of floodplain forests. In the majority of the services that were studied, this habitat reached high values and, in comparison with the other habitats, took one of the leading positions. When comparing the ranking in the provision of individual ecosystem functions per unit area, the best-assessed habitat in all assessed functions was floodplain and wetland forests, followed by ravine forests and beech forests, but the analysis of the rate of ecosystem function provision, related to the total area of interest, showed a different order of values. Understanding the context of the individual ecosystem functions of natural ecosystems and those close to nature, in comparison with anthropogenically altered ecosystems is a suggested route for ecologically and economically balanced landscape decision-making, which may increase the efficiency of nature and landscape protection.

Smaller and Isolated Grassland Fragments Are Exposed to Stronger Seed and Insect Predation in Habitat Edges

Habitat fragmentation threatens terrestrial arthropod biodiversity, and thereby also leads to alterations of ecosystem functioning and stability. Predation on insects and seeds by arthropods are two very important ecological functions because of their community-structuring effects. We addressed the effect of fragment connectivity, fragment size, and edge effect on insect and seed predation of arthropods. We studied 60 natural fragments of two grassland ecosystems in the same region (Hungarian Great Plain), 30 forest-steppes, and 30 burial mounds (kurgans). The size of fragments were in the range of 0.16–6.88 ha for forest-steppe and 0.01–0.44 ha for kurgan. We used 2400 sentinel arthropod preys (dummy caterpillars) and 4800 seeds in trays for the measurements. Attack marks on dummy caterpillars were used for predator identification and calculation of insect predation rates. In the case of seeds, predation rates were calculated as the number of missing or damaged seeds per total number of exposed seeds. Increasing connectivity played a role only in generally small kurgans, with a negative effect on insect and seed predation rates in the edges. In contrast, fragment size moderated edge effects on insect and seed predation rates in generally large forest-steppes. The difference between edges and centres was more pronounced in small than in large fragments. Our study emphasizes the important role of landscape and fragment-scale factors interacting with edge effect in shaping ecosystem functions in natural grassland fragments of modified landscapes. Managing functional landscapes to optimize the assessment of ecosystem functions and services needs a multispatial scale approach.

Pantropical variability in tree crown allometry

AbstractAimTree crowns determine light interception, carbon and water exchange. Thus, understanding the factors causing tree crown allometry to vary at the tree and stand level matters greatly for the development of future vegetation modelling and for the calibration of remote sensing products. Nevertheless, we know little about large‐scale variation and determinants in tropical tree crown allometry. In this study, we explored the continental variation in scaling exponents of site‐specific crown allometry and assessed their relationships with environmental and stand‐level variables in the tropics.LocationGlobal tropics.Time periodEarly 21st century.Major taxa studiedWoody plants.MethodsUsing a dataset of 87,737 trees distributed among 245 forest and savanna sites across the tropics, we fitted site‐specific allometric relationships between crown dimensions (crown depth, diameter and volume) and stem diameter using power‐law models. Stand‐level and environmental drivers of crown allometric relationships were assessed at pantropical and continental scales.ResultsThe scaling exponents of allometric relationships between stem diameter and crown dimensions were higher in savannas than in forests. We identified that continental crown models were better than pantropical crown models and that continental differences in crown allometric relationships were driven by both stand‐level (wood density) and environmental (precipitation, cation exchange capacity and soil texture) variables for both tropical biomes. For a given diameter, forest trees from Asia and savanna trees from Australia had smaller crown dimensions than trees in Africa and America, with crown volumes for some Asian forest trees being smaller than those of trees in African forests.Main conclusionsOur results provide new insight into geographical variability, with large continental differences in tropical tree crown allometry that were driven by stand‐level and environmental variables. They have implications for the assessment of ecosystem function and for the monitoring of woody biomass by remote sensing techniques in the global tropics.

Seasonal variations in soil microbial communities under different land restoration types in a subtropical mountains region, Southwest China

Soil microbial community is an important indicator for understanding the effects of land restoration on soil quality and ecosystem development. Natural vegetation restoration types (shrubland and natural secondary forest) and plantation forests (Pinus forest and Eucalyptus forest) were selected to investigate the effects of land restoration models and seasons (dry and wet seasons) on soil microbial communities using phospholipid fatty acid analysis (PLFA). The results of two-way ANOVA and PERMANOVA test demonstrated that the land restoration type and season had significant effects on the concentrations of PLFA biomarkers. Significantly higher concentrations of all groups of PLFAs were found in natural secondary forest than in shrubland and plantation forests, suggesting that plant species-specific differences in quality and quantity of litters, root exudates and the soil properties influence the soil microbial community composition. Relative to the wet season, increases of biomasses of fungi, actinomycetes, AMF, and gram-positive bacteria in SL and NSF in the dry season were significant. The result of redundancy analysis showed that soil organic carbon and soil moisture significantly explained the variation in response of soil microbial communities to season and land restoration type in this region. Our finding indicates that heterogeneity of soil microbial response to time and vegetation must be considered in assessment of ecosystem functions and services under different land restoration types.

Green Infrastructure as a Factor for Sustainable Development of Khabarovsk

Green infrastructure is considered as a factor for the sustainable development of a city. The indicators of urban greening as well as the state and resistance of plantings to the urban environment are the indicators of the sustainable development of the cities and towns. Greening is the basis for green infrastructure, because it develops ecologically safe, esthetically attractive and comfortable urban environment. The purpose of the article is to assess the role of greening Khabarovsk as the main component of green infrastructure. We have used the method of forest estimation, the population and statistical methods. To assess the effectiveness of the municipal programme for the enhancement of the urban environment, we have analyzed the “cost-benefit†on the example of a city park. The territorial planning was based on the priority of economic development, and financing was insufficient. These facts lead to the problems in the protection and reproduction of green plantings of Khabarovsk. The strengthening of economic development caused the deterioration of the ecological status of the territory. The assessment of the current urban plantation has revealed a constant decrease of urban greening, a high percent of old-age plantings as well as a decrease in plant life because of urban stress. Extending the range and lands for greening during urban renovation is a positive trend. Green spaces except for socio-economic infrastructure are the major ecosystem services. The methods for their assessment are still in the early stage of development. The preliminary assessment of ecosystem functions using the “cost-benefit†method on the example of the city park has allowed increasing the economic value of the green space, drawing attention to the reduction of the area for greening as well as to the need for maintaining the high viability of plants. The cities are priority territories to develop a system of payments for ecosystem services, which provide sustainable development of a region. The results can be applied in the ecological planning of urban space, regional environmental policy, and municipal management. The green infrastructure is a multipurpose infrastructure, which improves ecological situation in Khabarovsk, creates favorable conditions for both the citizens and investment climate as well as promotes domestic and inbound tourism.

ENVIRONMENTAL AND ECONOMIC CHALLENGES OF CLIMATE CHANGE FOR EASTERN EUROPEAN FORESTS IN MID-LATITUDE ZONE

The article considers the main challenges facing the forest sector of European part of Mid-Latitude zone in connection with climate change. The main aim was to systematize available scientific information on climate change influence on forests in the research region. The methods of analysis, synthesis, comparison and generalization of available scientific information were applied. Environmental results of climate changeimpact on forests are represented by future worsening stability and sanitary state of forest stands of Ukraine's main forest-forming tree species. This becomes more and more noticeable for Scots pine dominated stands across Ukraine, and the future for forests composed by other tree species is no longer optimistic in the long run. It is stated that the changing environment will lead to alteration of growth, productivity and bioproductivity of Ukrainian forests, and, consequently,to the necessity to rethink approaches to selection of tree species, forest caring and growing, assessment of ecosystem functions and so on. Economic consequences of climate change for forestry will manifest themselves in the loss of resources, loss of income, as well as expenditures for implementing environmental stabilizing measures. The attention is drawn to significant volumes of normative and information support as well as unique empirical data accumulated in Ukraine during a prolonged period of forest management, forest science and practice. Those are actively used to describe dynamics of various characteristics of forest ecosystems within scientific research, management planning and forest industry.The importance of improving the information support of the forestry sector is emphasized, which will ensure the possibility of forecasting the state of forests under climate change conditions and making sound managerial decisions, and possible pathways for this are highlighted. Characterized are necessary prerequisites and possible ways of transition to the paradigm of sustainable development on the basis of risk-resilient forest management in Ukraine and in geographically greater region.

Retrieval of Specific Leaf Area From Landsat-8 Surface Reflectance Data Using Statistical and Physical Models

One of the key traits in the assessment of ecosystem functions is a specific leaf area (SLA). The main aim of this study was to examine the potential of new generation satellite images, such as Landsat-8 imagery, for the retrieval of SLA at regional and global scales. Therefore, both statistical and radiative transfer model (RTM) inversion approaches for estimating SLA from the new Landsat-8 product were evaluated. Field data were collected for 33 sample plots during a field campaign in summer 2013 in the Bavarian Forest National Park, Germany, while Landsat-8 image data concurrent with the time of field campaign were acquired. Estimates of SLA were examined using different Landsat-8 spectral bands, vegetation indices calculated from these bands, and the inversion of a canopy RTM. The RTM inversion was performed utilizing continuous wavelet analysis and a look-up table (LUT) approach. The results were validated using R 2 and the root-mean-square error (RMSE) between the estimated and measured SLA. In general, SLA was estimated accurately by both statistical and RTM inversion approaches. The relationships between measured and estimated SLA using the enhanced vegetation index were strong ( R 2 = 0.77 and RMSE = 4.44%). Furthermore, the predictive model developed from combination of the wavelet features at 654.5 nm (scale 9) and 2200.5 nm (scale 2) correlated strongly with SLA ( R 2 = 0.79 and RMSE = 7.52%). The inversion of LUT using a spectral subset consisting of bands 5, 6, and 7 of Landsat-8 ( R 2 = 0.73 and RMSE = 5.33%) yielded a higher accuracy and precision than any other spectral subset. The findings of this study provide insights into the potential of the new generation of multispectral medium-resolution satellite imagery, such as Landsat-8 and Sentinel-2, for accurate retrieval and mapping of SLA using either statistical or RTM inversion methods.

Assessment of water retention function as tool to improve integrated watershed management (case study of Poprad river basin, Slovakia)

The presented study concentrates on assessing the ecosystem function of water retention. The water retention function is defined as the ability of the landscape to retain water, slow runoff and encourage water infiltration. The water retention function was expressed by calculating the hydric significance (HS) indicator. This method is based on scoring the individual input parameters according to their overall impact on watershed hydrology. The study was conducted on a sample area of Poprad River basin. The final results presented a spatial distribution of hydric function within the watershed classified according to its significance into four classes (from limited to excellent significance). A breakdown of the results on the level of elementary watersheds was used in order to examine those with low hydric function. The results showed a significant influence of land-use on retention function; however, this impact could be limited by extreme precipitation or high soil water saturation. The methodology of hydric significance represents an innovative approach towards assessment of ecosystem function of water retention on regional level.

Integrating ecosystem functions into restoration ecology—recent advances and future directions

AbstractIncluding ecosystem functions into restoration ecology has been repeatedly suggested, yet there is limited evidence that this is taking place without bias to certain habitats, species, or functions. We reviewed the inclusion of ecosystem functions in restoration and potential relations to habitats and species by extracting 224 publications from the literature (2004–2013). Most studies investigated forests, fewer grasslands or freshwaters, and fewest wetlands or marine habitats. Of all studies, 14% analyzed only ecosystem functions, 44% considered both biotic composition and functions, 42% exclusively studied the biotic component, mostly vascular plants, more rarely invertebrates or vertebrates, and least often microbes. Most studies investigating ecosystem functions focused on nutrient cycling (26%), whereas productivity (18%), water relations (16%), and geomorphological processes (14%) were less covered; carbon sequestration (10%), decomposition (6%), and trophic interactions (6%) were rarely studied. Monitoring of ecosystem functions was common in forests and grasslands, but the functions considered depended on the study organisms. These associations indicate research opportunities for certain habitats, species, and functions. Overall, the call to include ecosystem functions in restoration has been heard; however, a lack of clarity about the ecosystem functions to be included and deficits of feasible field methods are major obstacles for a functional approach. Restoration ecology should learn from recent advances in rapid assessment of ecosystem functions, and by a closer integration with biodiversity–ecosystem functioning research. Not all functions need to be measured in all ecosystems, but more functions than the few commonly addressed would improve the understanding of restored ecosystems.

Spatial assessment of ecosystem functions and services for air purification of forests in South Korea

Ecosystem functions can be understood as the quantified amount of an ecosystem’s role in a natural process, while ecosystem services are the requantification of the ecosystem functions by factoring in environmental conditions and human needs based on social perspectives. In this study, differences between ecosystem functions and services were presented in terms of air purification of a forest ecosystem. Forest volume growth was employed to quantify the pollutant absorption capacity of a forest and was indicated by the natural functions (NF) for air purification by a forest ecosystem. Forest ecosystem services can be requantified from the forest functions by adding the air pollutant and population densities. Air pollutant density was applied to the assessment of the environmental services (ES) of forest ecosystems. Furthermore, the environmental social services (ESS) of forest ecosystems were assessed by including population density considerations. We simulated differences in NF, ES, and ESS in relation to pollutant and population density; while NF was spatially quantified without a close relationship to air pollutant and population density, ES and ESS reacted to environmental and social condition more sensitively. These results imply that the ecosystem services of forest resources for air purification are high where the pollutant and population densities are high, while the ecosystem functions of forest resources for air purification depend solely on forest conditions and not on the density changes of air pollutants and population. This study suggests that the differences in NF, ES, and ESS are important factors to be understood and considered in the decision-making process for ecosystem services. When considering human needs and surrounding environmental conditions, the results suggest that decision makers should utilize the ES and ESS concepts, which reflect both population and pollutant density along with additional human-related factors.

Ecosystem services of regulation and support in Amazonian pioneer fronts: searching for landscape drivers

Landscape dynamics result from forestry and farming practices, both of which are expected to have diverse impacts on ecosystem services (ES). In this study, we investigated this general statement for regulating and supporting services via an assessment of ecosystem functions: climate regulation via carbon sequestration in soil and plant biomass, water cycle and soil erosion regulation via water infiltration in soil, and support for primary production via soil chemical quality and water storage. We tested the hypothesis that patterns of land-cover composition and structure significantly alter ES metrics at two different scales. We surveyed 54 farms in two Amazonian regions of Brazil and Colombia and assessed land-cover composition and structure from remote sensing data (farm scale) from 1990 to 2007. Simple and well-established methods were used to characterize soil and vegetation from five points in each farm (plot scale). Most ES metrics were significantly correlated with land-use (plot scale) and land-cover (farm scale) classifications; however, spatial variability in inherent soil properties, alone or in interaction with land-use or land-cover changes, contributed greatly to variability in ES metrics. Carbon stock in above-ground plant biomass and water infiltration rate decreased from forest to pasture land covers, whereas soil chemical quality and plant-available water storage capacity increased. Land-cover classifications based on structure metrics explained significantly less ES metric variation than those based on composition metrics. Land-cover composition dynamics explained 45 % (P < 0.001) of ES metric variance, 15 % by itself and 30 % in interaction with inherent soil properties. This study describes how ES evolve with landscape changes, specifying the contribution of spatial variability in the physical environment and highlighting trade-offs and synergies among ES.

Using watershed function as the leading indicator for water quality

Diffuse nonpoint source (NPS) pollutants, such as sediment, nitrogen, phosphorus, and pathogens, have become the primary cause of water quality impairments in the United States of America. Resource management agencies in the USA are expanding the use of tools for the assessment of ecosystem function in water quality programs to control NPS pollution to meet US Clean Water Act objectives. Assessing the ecosystem function of upland and riparian areas provides the context for monitoring data that can improve the targeting of best management practices for NPS pollution, and be a leading (early) indicator for more timely decisions about aquatic habitat and water quality. Assessment of watershed function can be applied to prioritizing resources, developing indicators, monitoring aquatic habitat and water quality, and implementing adaptive management plans to restore degraded ecosystems that are producing NPS pollution. This paper presents three examples of progress in the institutionalization of this approach to water quality programs for sustainable and healthy watersheds that affect federal, state, tribal, and private landowners. Future work should refine the approach by evaluating the benefits, costs, and effectiveness of the use of watershed function in water quality programs.