Assessing Reading Performance Research Articles

Structure-function relationship of reading performance in patients with early to moderate glaucoma.

To assess reading performance in patients with mild to moderate primary open-angle glaucoma (POAG), and to determine the relationship between reading ability and visual field (VF), microperimetry, and optical coherence tomography (OCT) parameters. Reading performance of 30 POAG patients examined by the Minnesota Reading Acuity Chart (MNREAD) was compared to that of 21 age-matched controls collected from Ankara University in Turkey. Humphrey Field Analyzer (HFA) 24-2 SITA Standard and 10-2 patterns, and microperimetry were used for VF measurements. All subjects underwent OCT analysis for retinal nerve fiber layer thickness (RNFLT), optic nerve head (ONH) measurements, and ganglion cell inner plexiform layer thickness (GCIPLT). The linear relationship between reading parameters and VF, microperimetry, and OCT parameters was investigated. Univariate and multiple logistic regression models were used to identify the risk factors for glaucoma. In POAG patients, maximum reading speed (MRS) had a significant association with average rim area, mean cup-to-disc ratio (CDR), and cup volume (p < 0.05, for all). Decreased MRS was associated with thinner average GCIPLT and inferotemporal, superior, and inferior GCIPLT quadrants (p < 0.05, for all). Global index values for the HFA 24-2/10-2 tests, microperimetry, and ONH/RNFLT parameters had no correlation with reading performance. After accounting for the better and worse eyes, gender, education, age, and visual acuity of the glaucoma patients, MRS score was 23 units lower in the worse eye (p = 0.009), critical print size (CPS) was 0.21 units larger in the better eye (p = 0.03) and 0.25 units larger in the worse eye (p < 0.001), reading accesibility index (ACC) was 0.11 units lower in the better eye (p = 0.02) and 0.13 units lower in the worse eye (p = 0.002), and RA was 0.13 units higher in the worse eye (p = 0.003) of POAG patients. POAG had significantly lower reading performance when compared to healthy subjects. Reading speed was associated with decreased macular GCIPLT indicating that reading performance may be affected in the earlier stages of the disease.

Reading performance in Portuguese children from second to tenth grade with the MNREAD reading acuity test

PurposeTo assess reading performance and report normative values for normal sighted Portuguese schoolchildren using the Portuguese version of the MNREAD reading acuity chart. MethodsChildren in the 2nd, 4th, 6th, 8th, and 10th grade in Portugal were recruited for this study. One hundred and sixty-seven children from 7 to 16 years of age participated. The Portuguese version of the printed MNREAD reading acuity chart was used to measure reading performance in these children. The non-linear mixed effects model with negative exponential decay function was used to compute maximum reading speed (MRS) and critical print size (CPS) automatically. Reading acuity (RA) and reading accessibility index (ACC) were computed manually. ResultsThe mean MRS in words-per-minute (wpm) for the 2nd grade was 55 wpm (SD = 11.2 wpm), 104 wpm (SD = 27.9) for the 4th grade, 149 wpm (SD = 22.5) for 6th grade, 172 wpm (SD = 24.6) for 8th grade and 180 wpm for the 10th grade (SD = 16.8). There was a significant difference in MRS between school grades (p < 0.001). Participants’ reading speed increased by 14.5 wpm (95% CL: 13.1–15.9) with each year of increase in age. We found a significant difference between RA and school grades, but not for CPS. ConclusionsThis study provides normative reading performance values for the Portuguese version of the MNREAD chart. The MRS increased with increasing age and school grade, while RA shows initial improvement from early school years and gradually stabilizes in the more mature children. Normative values for the MNREAD test can now be used to determine reading difficulties or slow reading speed in, for example, children with impaired vision.

Measurement Invariance in Relation to First Language: An Evaluation of German Reading and Spelling Tests

ABSTRACT The growing number of children in primary schools in Germany who have German as their second language (L2) has raised questions about the fairness of performance assessment. Fair tests are a prerequisite for distinguishing between L2 learning delay and a specific learning disability. We evaluated five commonly used reading and spelling tests for measurement invariance (MI) as a function of first language (German vs. other). Multi-group confirmatory factor analyses revealed strict MI for the Weingarten Basic Vocabulary Spelling Tests (WRTs) 3+ and 4+ and the Salzburger Reading (SLT) and Spelling (SRT) Tests, suggesting these instruments are suitable for assessing reading and spelling skills regardless of first language. The MI for A Reading Comprehension Test for First to Seventh Graders – 2nd Edition (ELFE II) was partly strict with unequal intercepts for the text subscale. We discuss the implications of this finding for assessing reading performance of children with L2.

Разработка русскоязычной версии Миннесотского теста чтения для слабовидящих

Background: to evaluate reading performance and to obtain comparable results in multi-center studies carried out in several countries, it is necessary to use rigorously developed standardized tests in different languages. Aim: to develop a Russian version of the Minnesota low vision reading chart (MNREAD) and to test it for measuring the near vision reading performance in normally sighted young adults. Patients and Methods: sixty sentences were composed using the most common words selected from the frequency dictionary and the school curriculum of 1st — 4th grades. The number of characters per sentence and the sentence length were adapted to match the MNREAD design principles. 38 sentences were selected. Then, two versions of the test in Russian language (MNREAD-R) with different series of sentences were printed out and tested randomly in 30 subjects aged 18–22 years during one session. The reading parameters were assessed at a 40-cm distance; subjects were asked to read the charts for testing their monocular (right and left eyes) and binocular reading. The measured reading acuity (RA), maximum reading speed (MRS), critical print size (CPS) and reading accessibility index (ACC) were evaluated using statistical analysis. Results: the time taken to read a standardized short test sentence was approx. 3 s. Binocular MRS for test chart 1 was 198±4.51 words/min, for test chart 2 — 200±4.76 words/min; CPS in binocular conditions was the same for both charts and equaled to 0.08±0.02 logMAR; binocular RA for test chart 1 was (-)0.04±0.01 logMAR and test chart 2 — (-)0,06±0,01 logMAR; binocular ACC was 1.00±0.02 and 1.03±0.02, respectively. No statistically significant differences were found between all parameters measured with the use of test charts 1 and 2 (р&gt;0.05). Conclusion: the developed MNREAD-R test charts can be used for Russian speaking population to measure RA, MRS, ACC and RT. Keywords: MNREAD, reading speed, tests to assess reading performance, visual acuity, low vision. For citation: Stepanets I.R., Kulikov A.N., Koskin S.A., Zhilchuk D.I. Development of a Russian version of the Minnesota low vision reading chart. Russian Journal of Clinical Ophthalmology. 2022;22(3):150–155 (in Russ.). DOI: 10.32364/2311-7729-2022-22-3-150-155

Challenges in Reading Arabic among Children with Dyslexia.

There are limited studies assessing reading performance and children's difficulties with dyslexia especially when reading Arabic, a language that has a substantially different script from English and other Latin-based languages. This study aimed to (1) measure reading performance in children with dyslexia by acuity level and (2) conduct an indirect comparison between the effects of dyslexia on Arabic versus English readers. Twenty children aged 9 to 12 years with dyslexia and 30 controls aged 9 to 11 years were included in the study. Reading performance was evaluated using maximum reading speed, reading acuity, and critical print size (CPS). Two Arabic charts, the Balsam Alabdulkader-Leat chart and the International Reading Speed Texts chart, were used to evaluate reading performance. The number of errors was calculated and plotted against print size. ANOVA revealed a significant difference between the two groups in all reading performance measures (P < .05). Reading speed for children with dyslexia was significantly lower than that for the control group (33 vs. 90 standard-length words per minute). Critical print sizes were 0.25 and 0.10 logMAR for children with dyslexia and the control group, respectively. Reading acuity was worse for children with dyslexia in comparison with the control group. Error number above the CPS was significantly higher in children with dyslexia than in the control group. Reading speed measures were lower for children with dyslexia compared with controls. Children with dyslexia required larger CPS to read at their maximum speed, indicating that larger print sizes may improve reading with greater speed. The difference in reading performance measures between controls and children with dyslexia is higher when reading Arabic than when reading English. This suggests that the intricate Arabic script and crowding may more strongly affect children with dyslexia reading Arabic.

DEVELOPING WEB-BASED ONLINE TEST SYSTEM TO BOOST IELTS ACADEMIC READING SCORE

Abstract: Web technology provides rich resources for both educators and learners in English teaching and learning process. In this context, the study aims at developing web-based online test for IELTS academic reading test on the users need for learners and educator of Universitas Darussalam Gontor. Addressing the issue of online test developing, this study utilized Alessi and Trollip instructional system design model. The formative evaluation and the increase in the average score at the pre-test and post-test of the learning motivation included alpha testing validated by two material and media experts and beta testing on learners’ attitude toward the online test, while summative evaluation covered learning outcomes. Upon analysis, the finding demonstrated that: (1) the resulting website: https://gets.unida.gontor.ac.id/pertanyaan/quiz was able to provide online evaluation for assessing reading performance among learners; (2) the increase in the average score on the pre-test and post-test of the learning outcomes of all learners was 0.43 (moderate category) and learner motivation scale was 0.38 (Medium-g courses). Hence, web-based online test could optimize learners’ excitement to assess their IELTS proficiency.

Assessing reading performance in the periphery with a Bayesian adaptive approach: The qReading method.

Reading is a crucial visual activity and a fundamental skill in daily life. Rapid Serial Visual Presentation (RSVP) is a text-presentation paradigm that has been extensively used in the laboratory to study basic characteristics of reading performance. However, measuring reading function (reading speed vs. print size) is time-consuming for RSVP reading using conventional testing procedures. In this study, we develop a novel method, qReading, utilizing the Bayesian adaptive testing framework to measure reading function in the periphery. We perform both a psychophysical experiment and computer simulations to validate the qReading method. In the experiment, words are presented using an RSVP paradigm at 10° in the lower visual field. The reading function obtained from the qReading method with 50 trials exhibits good agreement (i.e., high accuracy) with the reading function obtained from a conventional method (method of constant stimuli [MCS]) with 186 trials (mean root mean square error: 0.12 log10 units). Simulations further confirm that the qReading method provides an unbiased measure. The qReading procedure also demonstrates excellent precision (half width of 68.2% credible interval: 0.02 log10 units with 50 trials) compared to the MCS method (0.03 log10 units with 186 trials). This investigation establishes that the qReading method can adequately measure the reading function in the normal periphery with high accuracy, precision, and efficiency, and is a potentially valuable tool for both research and clinical assessments.

Preliminary study on reading speed test with IReST for normally-sighted young Chinese readers

Objective: To assess the reading speed of normally-sighted young Chinese with the International Reading Speed Texts (IReST) Chinese version, and evaluate the normal range of the texts, the equivalence of the ten different texts and the potential clinical value. Methods: Evaluation of diagnostic techniques. Participants aged 18 to 35 years old with junior high school or above education and best corrected visual acuity no less than 0.6 were recruited. Best corrected visions of both eyes and binocular vision were tested, and ocular and nervous system diseases were excluded with slit-lamp microscope and funduscope. All the ten texts were read aloud at a distance of 40cm one by one according to a random sequence for each participant. Reading speeds were calculated based on the reading time measured with a stopwatch and number of characters read correctly. The procedure was repeated once again a week later. Data were collected with Epidata and further analyzed with R software. Data accorded with normal distribution and homogeneity of variance were compared by t-test, or by rank sum test. Results: One hundred and three volunteers aged (26.0±2.8) years old participated in the survey. Among them, 66% were female, 96.1% had college education, 53.4% wear glasses in daily life. The best corrected vision of both distance and near were 1.0 (decimal). For the first test, average reading speed for all the participants and texts was (295±51) characters/min,much faster than the normal range provided by the reading cards. No significant difference was found between different texts, and the biggest variance between texts was 11 characters/min(P>0.05). The average reading speed of the second test was (315±53) characters/min, which was faster than the first one (P<0.05) . No statistic relationship was found between reading speed and age, education level or wearing of glasses. However, women read faster than men, and significant difference was found between male and female volunteers in 5 texts during the first test. Conclusions: Normally-sighted young Chinese readers read faster than the normal range provided by IReST cards. There is significant variance of reading speed between different individuals. Although learning effect due to the repeated tests should be considered, the ten texts are of favorable consistency. IReST can be a useful tool for assessing reading performance, especially for comparing results before and after interventions with different texts. (Chin J Ophthalmol, 2018, 54: 120-124).

Minor Immediate Effects of a Dog on Children's Reading Performance and Physiology.

Literacy is a key factor in occupational success and social integration. However, an increasing number of children lack appropriate reading skills. There is growing evidence that dogs have positive effects on reading performance. We investigated the short-term effects of dogs on reading performance in 36 third-graders and monitored physiological parameters [heart rate (HR), heart rate variability (HRV), and salivary cortisol] as well as behavioral variables. Each child took part in two test sessions at the presence of a tutor, in one of which a dog and its handler were present. To assess reading performance two reading tests were used: two subtests of the standardized “Ein Leseverständnistest für Erst- bis Sechstklässler”, where the children have to carry out time-limited reading tasks, to assess sentence and text comprehension, and repeated reading (RR), where the children have to read the same text twice, to assess reading speed and short-term improvement. Although the dog had no effect on reading performance scores, within the first test session the children improved from the first to the second run of RR when a dog was present but not without dog. The behavior of the children indicated a calming effect of the dog in the first test session with less nervous movements and the children being less talkative. We found no impact of the dog on HR and HRV. However, the excitement about the dog in combination with the unknown situation in the first test session was reflected in a higher difference in the mean HR difference between the two test sessions for the children, who in the first test session had a dog present, compared to the children, who had the dog in the second test session. In the second test session, the children were more aroused with a dog present than with no dog present, as indicated by the area under the curve increase (AUCi) of salivary cortisol values. We conclude that the presence of a dog had a minor short-term positive effect on the children’s motivation and reading performance. More substantial effects could probably be achieved with repeated sessions.

Validation of a Reading Assessment for Persons With Homonymous Hemianopia or Quadrantanopia

ObjectiveTo preliminarily validate the Visual Skills for Reading Test (VSRT) for assessing reading performance in persons with homonymous hemianopia (HH) or quadrantanopia. DesignRetrospective chart review. SettingUniversity-based outpatient low vision rehabilitation center. ParticipantsPersons (N=38) with HH or quadrantanopia who completed the VSRT. InterventionsValidation procedures included testing for equivalence of the 3 test versions, estimation of internal consistency reliability, and known-group comparison using VSRT results from previous studies of adults with normal vision and central field loss. Main Outcome MeasuresCorrected reading rate, reading accuracy rate, type and number of reading errors, and completion time were recorded and evaluated. ResultsCronbach α for the VSRT across all participants was .80, which indicated good internal consistency. A known-group comparison showed that persons with a visual field deficit read significantly slower than did normally sighted adults (t580=10.13; P<.0001). Persons with quadrantanopia read significantly faster than did persons with HH (t36=2.25; P=.03) or those with central field loss (t48=3.17; P=.0027). These findings confirmed that the VSRT correctly discriminated between groups in terms of reading performance. ConclusionsPreliminary validation results indicate that the VSRT demonstrates adequate evidence of reliability and validity to evaluate reading performance in adults with HH or quadrantanopia.

Development and validation of a new Chinese reading chart for children.

This study aimed to develop and validate a new Chinese reading chart for children. The characteristics of reading profiles among Hong Kong children were also investigated. A new reading chart was developed using the design principles of the MNREAD chart. Children (N = 169) aged seven to 11 years with normal vision and no developmental or reading difficulties were recruited from four local Hong Kong primary schools located in four different districts. Reading performance was measured using three versions of the new Chinese reading chart for children as well as six short passages. Repeated reading measures were conducted for 79 participants 4-8 weeks later. A linear mixed-model analysis was performed for the reading measures to identify the contribution of each source of variation (individual participant, among-charts within-session and between-sessions, and error) to the total variance. Three reading parameters were derived from the Chinese reading chart for children - maximum reading speed (MRS), critical print size (CPS) and reading acuity (RA). Results from the linear mixed-model and Bland and Altman analyses revealed that all three versions of the chart were reproducible, with little variability among-charts and between-sessions (p < 0.001). The coefficient of repeatability for the MRS, CPS and RA was 0.08 logWPM, 0.16 logMAR and 0.14 logMAR respectively. The strong correlation between reading speed measured by the chart and ordinary children's reading passages confirmed the usefulness of the chart for assessing children's reading performance (Rc = 0.67, 95% CI of 0.60-0.73). We developed and validated a new Chinese reading chart for children for quantifying reading performance in Chinese children with normal reading ability. This standardised clinical test can be reliably used to measure the MRS, CPS and RA in Chinese-speaking children. Further research is needed to evaluate the validity of this chart for assessing reading performance in Chinese children with reading difficulties, dyslexia or low vision.

Malay

A Malay Language Related Reading Text Test was developed to assess reading performance among primary school children. One hundred and twenty normally sighted primary school children were randomly selected from year 2 and 3 (mean age 8.5 ± 0.5 years) and year 4 and 5 (mean age 10.5 ± 0.5 years). Subjects were asked to read all five reading text aloud, correctly and according to their usual reading speed in random order. Time to complete each reading paragraph was recorded and any error or guessing was noted. Reading speed and reading rate were measure as word per minute (wpm). The mean reading speed for grade 1 was 88.81 ± 1.95 (SE) wpm and the reading rate was 87.20 ± 1.98 (SE) wpm. For grade 2, reading speed was 108.12 ± 1.66 (SE) wpm while reading rate was 107.22± 1.67 (SE) wpm. Reading speed and reading rate among subjects were not significantly different (p > 0.05) either for grade 1 or 2 with p value 0.91 and 0.57 respectively. Comparison between each text also showed that there was no significant different (p > 0.05). All texts that were developed were statistically homogenous indicating that the reading texts test can be use in random order and will not affect the reading assessment in primary school children. DOI : http://dx.doi.org/10.17576/JSKM-2015-1301-07

Relación entre aprendizaje de la lectura y nivel socioeconómico en niños argentinos

The aim of this work was to provide empirical data about reading performance in elementary school children from public and private schools in Mar del Plata, Argentina, considering the differences in their socioeconomic status (SES). The sample consisted of 227 1st and 3rd graders (male and female). In order to assess reading performance, we administered 10 scales from the Child Neuropsychological Assessment Set —known by the acronym ENI in Spanish—, four of them related to decoding and six related to comprehension. To assess the participants´ SES, we considered the type of school (public or private) they go to, and we requested information about social class, socio-occupational status of the head of household, parents’ educational level and current occupational status of the head of household. Our results confirm that reading performance varies with type of school and SES, as students that go to a public school and come from lower socioeconomic backgrounds underperformed in almost all the tests. We also found that differences in lexical access tasks are reduced during schooling. To conclude, we insist in the early schooling of children that come from disadvantaged socioeconomic backgrounds, in order to mitigate the deficits caused by a weak reading stimulation and a poor literacy environment.

Using eye tracking to assess reading performance in patients with glaucoma: a within-person study.

Reading is often cited as a demanding task for patients with glaucomatous visual field (VF) loss, yet reading speed varies widely between patients and does not appear to be predicted by standard visual function measures. This within-person study aimed to investigate reading duration and eye movements when reading short passages of text in a patient's worse eye (most VF damage) when compared to their better eye (least VF damage). Reading duration and saccade rate were significantly different on average in the worse eye when compared to the better eye (P < 0.001) in 14 patients with glaucoma that had median (interquartile range) between-eye difference in mean deviation (MD; a standard clinical measure for VF loss) of 9.8 (8.3 to 14.8) dB; differences were not related to the size of the difference in MD between eyes. Patients with a more pronounced effect of longer reading duration on their worse eye made a larger proportion of “regressions” (backward saccades) and “unknown” EMs (not adhering to expected reading patterns) when reading with the worse eye when compared to the better eye. A between-eye study in patients with asymmetric disease, coupled with eye tracking, provides a useful experimental design for exploring reading performance in glaucoma.

Reliability of a standardized test in Swedish for evaluation of reading performance in healthy eyes. Interchart and test–retest analyses

The purpose of our study was to establish a practical and quick test for assessing reading performance and to statistically analyse interchart and test-retest reliability of a new standardized Swedish reading chart system consisting of three charts constructed according to the principles available in the literature. Twenty-four subjects with healthy eyes, mean age 65±10years, were tested binocularly and the reading performance evaluated as reading acuity, critical print size and maximum reading speed. The test charts all consist of 12 short text sentences with a print size ranging from 0.9 to -0.2logMAR in approximate steps of 0.1logMAR. Two testing sessions, in two different groups (C1 and C2), were under strict control of luminance and lighting environment. Reading performance tests with chart T1, T2 and T3 were used for evaluation of interchart reliability and test data from a second session 1month or more apart for the test-retest analysis. The testing of reading performance in adult observers with short sentences of continuous text was quick and practical. The agreement between the tests obtained with the three different test charts was high both within the same test session and at retest. This new Swedish variant of a standardized reading system based on short sentences and logarithmic progression of print size provides reliable measurements of reading performance and preliminary norms in an age group around 65years. The reading test with three independent reading charts can be useful for clinical studies of reading ability before and after treatment.

Measuring reading performance

Despite significant changes in the treatment of common eye conditions like cataract and age-related macular degeneration, reading difficulty remains the most common complaint of patients referred for low vision services. Clinical reading tests have been widely used since Jaeger introduced his test types in 1854. A brief review of the major developments in clinical reading tests is provided, followed by a discussion of some of the main controversies in clinical reading assessment. Data for the Salisbury Eye Evaluation (SEE) study demonstrate that standardised clinical reading tests are highly predictive of reading performance under natural, real world conditions, and that discrepancies between self-reported reading ability and measured reading performance may be indicative of people who are at a pre-clinical stage of disability, but are at risk for progression to clinical disability. If measured reading performance is to continue to increase in importance as a clinical outcome measure, there must be agreement on what should be measured (e.g. speed or comprehension) and how it should be measured (e.g. reading silently or aloud). Perhaps most important, the methods for assessing reading performance and the algorithms for scoring reading tests need to be optimised so that the reliability and responsiveness of reading tests can be improved.

Standardized Assessment of Reading Performance: The New International Reading Speed Texts IReST

There is a need for standardized texts to assess reading performance, for multiple equivalent texts for repeated measurements, and for texts equated across languages for multi-language studies. Paragraphs are preferable to single sentences for accurate speed measurement. We developed such texts previously in 6 languages. The aim of our current study was to develop texts in more languages for a wide range of countries and users, and to assess the reading speeds of normally-sighted readers. Ten texts were designed for 17 languages each by a linguist who matched content, length, difficulty, and linguistic complexity. The texts then were used to assess reading speeds of 436 normally-sighted native speakers (age 18-35 years, 25 per language, 36 in Japanese), presented at a distance of 40 cm and size 1 M, that is 10-point Times New Roman font. Reading time (aloud) was measured by stopwatch. For all 17 languages, average mean reading speed was 1.42 ± 0.13 texts/min (±SD), 184 ± 29 words/min, 370 ± 80 syllables/min, and 863 ± 234 characters/min. For 14 languages, mean reading time was 68 ms/character (95% confidence interval [CI] 65-71 ms). Our analysis focussed on words per minute. The variability of reading speed within subjects accounts only for an average of 11.5%, between subjects for 88.5%. The low within-subject variability shows the equivalence of the texts. The IReST (second edition) can now be provided in 17 languages allowing standardized assessment of reading speed, as well as comparability of results before and after interventions, and is a useful tool for multi-language studies (for further information see www.amd-read.net).

The Influence of Inattention and Rapid Automatized Naming on Reading Performance

The current study examined the relation between attention, rapid automatized naming (RAN), and reading fluency among typically developing children. A total of 104 third- and fourth-grade children (8-11 years of age) completed RAN measures consisting of four stimuli (letter, digit, color, and object) and an oral reading fluency measure from the Gray Oral Reading Test-Fourth Edition. Correlational and hierarchical regression analyses revealed that all four RAN stimuli, particularly letter RAN, were significant predictors of reading fluency. Additionally, parent and teacher ratings of inattention from the Swanson, Nolan and Pelham-Version Four rating scale predicted RAN after controlling for gender, working memory, and estimated IQ. Further analyses indicated that RAN performance mediated the relation between inattention and reading fluency. Results support the need to consider attentional variables when assessing reading performance, even among typically developing children.

There are Multiple Contributors to the Verbal Short-Term Memory Deficit in Children with Developmental Reading Disabilities

Prior research has put forth at least four possible contributors to the verbal short-term memory (VSTM) deficit in children with developmental reading disabilities (RD): poor phonological awareness that affects phonological coding into VSTM, a less effective phonological store, slow articulation rate, and fewer/poorer quality long-term memory (LTM) representations. This project is among the first to test the four suppositions in one study. Participants included 18 children with RD and 18 controls. VSTM was assessed using Baddeley's model of the phonological loop. Findings suggest all four suppositions are correct, depending upon the type of material utilized. Children with RD performed comparably to controls in VSTM for common words but worse for less frequent words and nonwords. Furthermore, only articulation rate predicted VSTM for common words, whereas Verbal IQ and articulation rate predicted VSTM for less frequent words, and phonological awareness and articulation rate predicted VSTM for nonwords. Overall, findings suggest that the mechanism(s) used to code and store items by their meaning is intact in RD, and the deficit in VSTM for less frequent words may be a result of fewer/poorer quality LTM representations for these words. In contrast, phonological awareness and the phonological store are impaired, affecting VSTM for items that are coded phonetically. Slow articulation rate likely affects VSTM for most material when present. When assessing reading performance, VSTM predicted decoding skill but not word identification after controlling Verbal IQ and phonological awareness. Thus, VSTM likely contributes to reading ability when words are novel and must be decoded.

From Single Words to Passages: Contextual Effects on Predictive Power of Vocabulary Measures for Assessing Reading Performance

In the last 15 years or so, language testing practitioners have increasingly favored assessing vocabulary in context. The discrete-point vocabulary measure used in the old version of the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) has long been criticized for encouraging test candidates to memorize wordlists out of context although test items based on this format were reported to have provided some useful and reliable prediction of TOEFL reading performance. Language testers believe that vocabulary items embedded in full passages in a reading test will create more positive washback; out of this good intention the vocabulary measurement in the TOEFL Reading subtest was revised to contain only passage-based items. However, apart from Henning's (1991) study, there is little empirical evidence on how a passage-based vocabulary assessment format would compare with the traditional discrete-point vocabulary format in terms of predicting TOEFL reading performance. This article reviews the development of vocabulary item types in the TOEFL and reports on an investigation into the power of the discrete-point and passage-based vocabulary item types in predicting reading scores. Data were collected from more than 200 international students who completed a discrete-point vocabulary measure and a TOEFL Reading Comprehension subtest, which contained 12 questions on vocabulary items embedded in the reading passages. Data were analyzed using correlations, hierarchical multiple regression, and item difficulty and discriminability indexing based on point-biserial correlations. Statistical results indicate that, in assessing reading performance, discrete-point vocabulary items and fully contextualized vocabulary items provide a similar amount of prediction. However, in the context of considering educational impact, this article argues in favor of the continued adoption of the fully contextualized vocabulary item format because it will more likely induce beneficial washback effects than the discrete-point vocabulary item format. The contextualized format also has the advantage of bringing vocabulary testing closer to real-life communicative application of the English language and therefore has more positive implications for the language classroom.