Assertive Manner Research Articles

Rudolf Virchow: Cellular Pathologist

Rudolf Virchow (1821–1902) Rudolf Carl Virchow was born October 13, 1821, in the small town of Schivelbein, in Eastern Pomerania, now part of Poland. He was the only son of a farmer, who also held a position in local government. As a schoolboy, Virchow behaved poorly, but scholastically he was brilliant. He showed a talent for science, languages, and hard work. In 1839 he received a fellowship to study medicine in Berlin at the Friedrich-Wilhelms Institute, the Army Medical School, with the intention of pursuing a military career. There he met Johannes Mueller, a famous physiologist, anatomist, and pathologist who greatly influenced him. Upon graduating in 1843 he changed his mind about a military career and instead accepted an unpaid position as an assistant prosecutor with clinical duties at the Charite Hospital, the largest hospital in Berlin. In this position he had access to the laboratories of Mueller and no doubt learned from him correct experimental technique. Mueller and Virchow got along well; Mueller recognized Virchow’s limitless energy and sharp mind. Mueller encouraged Virchow to study the pathological changes in tissues removed at autopsy. In 1846 he received a permanent position at the Charite, and in 1847 became a member of the medical faculty. In this position, Virchow gave classes in pathological anatomy and opened up autopsies to medical students. Virchow’s forcible character was also very noticeable. He had an overwhelming confidence, an assertive manner, and was thought by some to be overly arrogant. In 1845 Virchow wrote the first of many scientific papers describing leukemia. A short while later he introduced the terms thrombosis and embolism in another paper. Irritated at the time it took to get articles published and …

Expert Strategies: Nurses Providing Care for their Elderly Parents

Few studies have examined how medical professionals, i.e. “caregiving experts,” approach caregiving when called upon to provide it for someone in their own families. Expert strategies are sought in problem-solving research, and may be of similar benefit in the field of caregiving research. Thus, we report data from a focus group with middle-aged, registered nurses about their experiences providing care for an elderly, chronically-ill parent. Questions centered on: (i) key caregiving tasks performed by nurses for elderly parents (ii) obstacles to performing caregiving tasks, (iii) strategies used to overcome obstacles. Participants reported serving primarily as health educators and patient advocates for elderly parents. They advocated in an assertive manner, while simultaneously framing the need for patient assertiveness as an unfair burden placed on patients by the rushed managed care climate. This climate was viewed as placing elderly parents at risk, and interfering with good nursing practices. In serving as health educators for parents, participants linked the need to do so to inadequate health education provided by doctors and/or parents’ passivity in seeking health information. Health education provided to elderly parents centered on diabetes care, the seriousness of which participants believed diabetic parents did not grasp. Participants bemoaned passivity around health perceived in members of their parent’s generation, and encouraged parents to adopt a consumerist approach to medical help seeking. Key caregiver strategies for supporting elderly parents’ health included being impervious to doctor resistance when seeking medical help for parents; encouraging parents to act as healthcare consumers; and ensuring that elderly parents understood their own medical histories. Findings are discussed in terms of caregiving and eldercare program implications.

Nurses’ and midwives’ assertive behaviour in the workplace

This paper reports a study describing the assertive behaviour of a group of professional nurses and midwives and exploring potential barriers and facilitators to the use of assertiveness skills in the workplace. As nurses and midwives move away from traditional roles, it is increasingly being recognized that they need to behave in an assertive manner. Much literature supports the use of assertive behaviour in clinical practice. Although specific individual assertive behaviours and skills have been examined in many settings, little empirical evidence exists about the frequency and use of assertiveness skills by nurses and midwives in the workplace. While there is evidence on barriers to the use of assertive skills, there is little information about factors that may facilitate their use. A survey design was adopted, using a 44-item questionnaire to collect data from a 2.5% random sample of nurses/midwives registered with the National Nursing Board of Ireland. The data were collected in 2003. While respondents frequently complimented their colleagues and often allowed them to express opinions, they were less accomplished at expressing their own opinions or making requests. Assertive behaviours were used more frequently with nursing/midwifery colleagues than with management/medical colleagues. Most used assertiveness skills with other grades of staff in their own profession. Responsibility to patients/clients emerged as a supporting factor for using assertive behaviour. Managers, the work atmosphere and fear were viewed as obstacles. Nurses and midwives needs to learn how to behave assertively, and this should be included in both pre- and post-registration education programmes. As use of assertiveness skills was reported to be least frequent with nurse/midwife managers, local policies and guidelines may be needed to encourage clinical practitioners to act autonomously and as client advocates.

How assertive are nurses in the workplace? A preliminary pilot study

This paper aims to outline the development and results of an instrument that describes the assertive behaviour of nurses. As a largely female dominated profession, nurses are anecdotally regarded to be in traditional subservient roles. In addition, nurses aspire to public images of nurses as "nice". These factors are thought to reduce nurses' capacity to behave in an assertive manner. However, little empirical evidence exists that describes the assertive skills of today's practicing nurse. A 44-item questionnaire collected data from 27 registered nurses. Items that feature strongly in the respondents reported behaviour are allowing others to express opinions, complimenting others and saying no. These findings suggest that nurses behave in a passive way, conforming to the image of a nice nurse. Nurses were less adept at disagreeing with others opinions and providing constructive criticism. Differences emerged in behaviours between the three groups. Assertive behaviour is a skill, i.e. utilized according to interpersonal and role relationship. Factors within the work environment such as colleagues and atmosphere can support or prevent these behaviours.

Teaching assertiveness to undergraduate nursing students

Assertiveness is an important behaviour for today’s professional nurse. As nurses move away from traditional subservient roles and perceived stereotypes it is increasingly being recognised that a nurse needs to behave in an assertive manner. Assertiveness is necessary for effective nurse/patient communication, and it is suggested that its development may also aid the confidence of the profession as it develops. Assertive behaviour may be encouraged through educational methods. It is preferable that nurses receive this educational preparation during undergraduate programmes. Nurse educators have an important role in the development and implementation of assertiveness training/education programmes for undergraduate nursing students. Little empirical evidence exists to support teaching in this area, however role-play is a concept that is suggested for the experiential teaching of communication/interpersonal skills in general. Using role-play as a central focus, and available literature on the topic, a 3-hour assertiveness workshop is devised for undergraduate nursing students. This paper describes this workshop from the teacher’s perspective and outlines student responses. The experience is both positive and enlightening. Nurse educators have an important role to play in the development of education programmes of this kind. The sharing of this experience allows educators to examine current practice and presents pathways for future empirical studies in this area.

ESSENTIALS FOR EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION IN ONCOLOGY NURSING: ASSERTIVENESS, CONFLICT MANAGEMENT, DELEGATION, AND MOTIVATION

The ability to communicate effectively with a multidisciplinary team in an assertive manner to resolve conflict, motivate others, and delegate tasks is a prerequisite skill to promote a harmonious work environment. Acquisition of this skill is often a combination of inherent attributes and learned experiences. This article describes a program on assertiveness, conflict resolution, motivation of others, and delegation. Nurses are encouraged to seek expertise from other departments (e.g., Human Resources) to help them develop similar programs.

Essentials for effective communication in oncology nursing: assertiveness, conflict management, delegation, and motivation.

The ability to communicate effectively with a multidisciplinary team in an assertive manner to resolve conflict, motivate others, and delegate tasks is a prerequisite skill to promote a harmonious work environment. Acquisition of this skill is often a combination of inherent attributes and learned experiences. This article describes a program on assertiveness, conflict resolution, motivation of others, and delegation. Nurses are encouraged to seek expertise from other departments (e.g., Human Resources) to help them develop similar programs.

Political Contestation and the Emergence of the Provincial People's Congresses as Power Players in Chinese Politics: A network explanation

In the process of institutionalizing themselves, the Chinese Provincial People's Congresses (PPCs) have used their power in a more assertive manner and even contested decisions from other more powerful institutions, as shown by cases from the past two decades. By presenting a network mode of governance, this paper argues that institutional linkages and reciprocal strategy have, respectively, featured the institution building of the PPCs and their interaction with other power players, and thus the tension between institutional development and the expansion of power for the PPCs was solved. These two goals were pursued simultaneously in the Chinese legislative development. This was made possible by the way in which the PPCs conducted their activities. In their contestation with other institutions, the leaders within the PPCs conscientiously followed a ‘Mohe’ strategy, i.e. competition-cum-cooperation, and expanded the legislative power without turning other political players into their stumbling blocks. The paper attributes this unique development to the choice-set defined by the changing environment of the political economy under reform and Deng Xiaoping's ideas, the institutional linkages within the system of the people's congresses, and the astute leadership of the political entrepreneurs within the PPCs. This mixture of consultation and confrontation in the interactions between the PPCs and other major political institutions also indicated a change of political governance in China toward a network mode.

The relationship between habitual anger coping style and serum lipid and lipoprotein concentrations

The relationship between habitual anger coping styles, especially anger expression in a socially assertive manner and serum lipid concentrations was examined in 86 healthy subjects. Habitual anger expression was measured by the Müller Anger Coping Questionnaire (MAQ) on four scales: Aggression, Controlled Affect, Guilt, and Social Inhibition. A positive correlation between serum cholesterol and Aggression was found, as was a negative correlation between LDL HDL ratio and Controlled Affect. These correlations remained significant after adjustments for age, Body Mass Index (BMI), athletic activity, alcohol, nicotine and coffee consumption. After these adjustments, significant negative partial correlations between Controlled Affect and both total cholesterol and LDL were also found. We found no significant gender differences on any lipid measure. This study demonstrated that unfavourable lipid profiles are linked to a predominantly aggressive anger coping style, whereas favourable lipid profiles are associated with more socially assertive anger coping (Controlled Affect). Thus the expression of anger in a socially assertive manner can be seen as health promoting. The MAQ scales were better predictors of total serum cholesterol concentrations than the health related behaviors and characteristics. Results are discussed in terms of a psychophysiological risk model of inadequate anger coping.

Assertiveness Training for Clients with a Psychiatric Illness: A Pilot Study

The current literature documents a need for assertiveness training for clients with a psychiatric illness, in order to address this need, a programme was designed and implemented to provide clients with practical techniques to enable them to communicate in a more effective, assertive manner. The frames of reference for the programme were the model of human occupation and social teaming theory. Data were collected over a 2-year period from 33 clients with a psychiatric illness who participated in a 7-week training programme. The investigation incorporated a prospective one-group, pre-test/post-test design. The Rathus assertiveness schedule and the Rosenberg self-esteem scale were used to measure changes in assertiveness and self-esteem. A t-test analysis of the pre-test and post-test scores attained by group participants on both scales indicated a statistically significant increase in their level of assertive behaviour and self-esteem. A brief review of the pertinent literature and a description of the assertiveness training programme are provided. Programme evaluation results and recommendations for further research are also discussed.

The Transformation of Gender into Conversational Advantage: A Symbolic Interactionist Approach

This article examines the relationship between gender and conversational power by treating as problematic the process through which a social position is transformed into conversational advantage. Using symbolic interactionism, it is argued that conversational power is exercised over the course of a role performance and is affected by the identities of the interactants and the context in which interaction occurs. This argument is evaluated by using conversational data from a same-sex dyadic role-playing exercise and by measures of gender identity. Findings indicate that regardless of a person's sex, the more “male like” his/her gender identity, the more likely he/she is to challenge statements made by alter. Concerning context, the more assertive alter's behavior, the more likely ego is to act in a similarly assertive manner. The relevance of these findings for the broader study of self, society, and conversational behavior is discussed.

Sex Role Orientation

In the present study college students (N = 279) completed the Bem Sex Role Inventory, then observed videotapes that showed a model handling several social conflict situations in an assertive or unassertive manner. Both male and female models were used. Subjects then completed a 26-item adjective checklist to evaluate the model they observed. Results indicated that neither subjects' sex role orientation nor models' sex influenced observers' social evaluations. The models' actual behavior was the most significant determinant of observers' reactions. Evaluations of the models also were influenced, although to a lesser extent, by observers' biological sex. Clinical implications of these findings are discussed.

Situational context: Effects on perceptions of assertive and unassertive behavior

Several recent studies have evaluated interpersonal reactions to assertive and unassertive behavioral styles in social conflict (refusal) situations. To date, no research has examined the influence of different situational contexts on observers' judgments. In the present study, college students observed videotapes which showed a model handling either social conflict situations, commendatory situations, or combination of both situations in either an assertive or unassertive manner. Because the actor's sex may also influence the way assertiveness is viewed, both male and female models were used. Subjects then completed a 26-item adjective checklist describing the model they observed. Results were factor analyzed, then subjected to multivariate data analyses. The findings indicated that assertive, commendatory skill is a significant moderator variable influencing subjects' interpersonal reactions to assertive and unassertive behavior. Implications of the findings for clinical interventions are discussed.

Teaching the Psychology of Women: Examination of a Teaching-Learning Model

A teaching—learning model for teaching courses on the psychology of women is presented and illustrated by the psychology of women course offered at the University of Tennessee. The general approach and structure of the course are described and the basic assumptions underlying the teaching—learning approach are explained. The ultimate goal of the course is to develop women (and men) who behave in an active, healthy, assertive manner and who can assume responsibility for themselves.

Helping the withdrawn child

(1976). Helping the withdrawn child. Theory Into Practice: Vol. 15, Interpersonal Relations, pp. 332-336.