Assertion Of Dominance Research Articles

Aggression Unleashed: Neural Circuits from Scent to Brain.

Aggression is a fundamental behavior with essential roles in dominance assertion, resource acquisition, and self-defense across the animal kingdom. However, dysregulation of the aggression circuitry can have severe consequences in humans, leading to economic, emotional, and societal burdens. Previous inconsistencies in aggression research have been due to limitations in techniques for studying these neurons at a high spatial resolution, resulting in an incomplete understanding of the neural mechanisms underlying aggression. Recent advancements in optogenetics, pharmacogenetics, single-cell RNA sequencing, and in vivo electrophysiology have provided new insights into this complex circuitry. This review aims to explore the aggression-provoking stimuli and their detection in rodents, particularly through the olfactory systems. Additionally, we will examine the core regions associated with aggression, their interactions, and their connection with the prefrontal cortex. We will also discuss the significance of top-down cognitive control systems in regulating atypical expressions of aggressive behavior. While the focus will primarily be on rodent circuitry, we will briefly touch upon the modulation of aggression in humans through the prefrontal cortex and discuss emerging therapeutic interventions that may benefit individuals with aggression disorders. This comprehensive understanding of the neural substrates of aggression will pave the way for the development of novel therapeutic strategies and clinical interventions. This approach contrasts with the broader perspective on neural mechanisms of aggression across species, aiming for a more focused analysis of specific pathways and their implications for therapeutic interventions.

Dynamics of Royal Authority: A Comparative Study of Dominance Assertion in the Roman Republic and Roman Empire

This paper conducts a comparative analysis of how kings and consuls exercised dominance over their subjects in the Roman Republic and Roman Empire. By examining the contrasting strategies employed during these distinct time periods, the study sheds light on the evolving dynamics of power and control within the Roman state. Through this research process, the author found out that during the Roman Republic era, the consul mainly used the term senate to assert their dominance over the people, but as it shifted to Roma Empire period, the emperors mainly used propaganda and divine rights to assert the dominance over the people. This research’s meaning includes how did consuls or emperors from different time periods of roman history asserted their dominance over the citizens and the change and shift in the methods applied by the consuls during republic and empire time.

Field Observations of Same-sex Non-reproductive Mounts in Adult Male Philippine Long-tailed Macaques (Macaca fascicularis)

Non-reproductive sexual behaviors have been reported in many different animal taxa, including non-human primates (NHPs). One of the Philippine NHPs that exhibits non-reproductive sexual behaviors, specifically same-sex sexual behaviors (SSSBs), is the long-tailed macaque (LTM). We observed SSSBs during our ecological and behavioral surveys of wild LTMs in Brgy. New Israel, Makilala, Philippines. We recorded multiple non-reproductive mounts (NRMs) among adult males with two detailed observations of anogenital contacts and ejaculations of the mounters. There are several hypotheses that may explain why these sexual behaviors are displayed by macaques (e.g. dominance assertion, social tension reduction, and inaccessibility of females); however, our observations could not be completely explained by these hypotheses due to our limited number of records. We recommend that more thorough research should be conducted to increase our understanding of the possible reasons behind the SSSBs of LTMs.

Homosexual Courtship in Young Wild Capuchin Monkeys: A Case Study.

In primates, many species exhibit same-sex sexual behaviors (SSB), defined as "genital contact or genital manipulation between same-sex individuals." Several sociosexual functions have been proposed, including proceptivity enhancement, receptivity reduction, dominance assertion, practice for heterosexual copulation, tension regulation, reconciliation, and alliance formation. Capuchin monkeys are known for their rich and flexible sexual behavioral repertoire and elaborated courtships. At present, the few reports of SSB in capuchin monkeys (genera Sapajus and Cebus) focused on mounting. Here, we describe the case observed in a population of wild yellow-breasted capuchin monkeys (Sapajus xanthosternos) in which two young males, aged 5-6years and 19months, performed a 15-min uninterrupted sequence of courtship behaviors and mounting. Comparing with a previously established ethogram of 20 behaviors typical for heterosexual behavior of tufted capuchins, we show that these males performed 16 of them. Thus, SSBs are already present in the repertoire of young individuals and the practice may serve to create or strengthen bonds. Although same-sex mounting and genital inspection are common in capuchins' play and other social interactions, the almost entire array of courtship behaviors has never been observed in youngsters. Additionally, this example supports the notion that primate (homo)sexual behavior is not limited to genitalia and copulation, since the observed courtship included diverse behaviors different from genital contact. Thus, we propose a broader definition of sexual behavior.

Same-sex and immature sexual behaviour repertoire in a wild group of robust capuchin monkeys

Abstract In primates, same-sex and immature sexual behaviour is widespread and can include mounting and genital presentation. These patterns can be observed in multiple social contexts and across all ages, and can serve functions such as appeasement, reconciliation, practice and dominance assertion. In this study, we investigated same-sex and immature sexual behaviour in a group of robust capuchins (Sapajus nigritus) living in an Atlantic forest fragment and urban areas. We predicted that in order to practice sex, sexual behaviour in same-sex dyads and/or dyads that included immatures would resemble the adult heterosexual repertoire for solicitation through courtship displays, mounts and post-copulatory display. We also predicted that immature individuals would engage more frequently than adults in sexual interactions, in order to practice sex. We conducted all-occurrence observations of sexual behaviour in the study group (28 individuals: four adult males, one sub-adult male, eight adult females, eight juveniles and seven infants) from September 2016 to August 2017. Sexual interactions that included at least one immature individual in the dyad and/or occurred between individuals of the same sex were infrequent (N = 52, 0.13 interactions/hour), but much more frequent than heterosexual sexual interactions between adults in the group (N = 4, 0.01 interactions/hour). The same-sex and immature sexual repertoire resembled the described heterosexual patterns for the same species from the literature. Individuals displayed solicitation behaviours in “one-way courtship”, usually followed by a two-way courtship and then mounts, but post-copulatory behaviour was never observed. Except for the alpha male, all age-sex classes engaged in sexual interactions in same-sex dyads or in dyads that included immature individuals. We found no difference in frequency of participation across age classes, however, male-male dyads engaged more frequently in sexual interactions and may be practicing sex and courtship behaviours. Mounts are unlikely to be a form of dominance assertion as the alpha male did not participate, subordinate adult males did not engage in mounts with other subordinate adult males, juveniles mounted adult males and vice versa, and there were mount switches (taking turns as mounter and mountee) regardless of the initial mounter’s age. Contrary to the post-conflict context observed in Cebus, most mounts in this study were preceded by play. Combining our study with additional evidence for the genus, same-sex mounts and mounts that include immatures seem to occur most commonly in affiliative contexts within Sapajus. Sexual behaviour functions in Sapajus require additional investigation, especially among adult males and juveniles of both sexes.

Teaching Romans 7 after Trent: Michael Baius and his Lecture Hall on Concupiscence and Original Sin in Early Modern Louvain (1552–1589)

Abstract This article introduces a new corpus of sources relevant to the sixteenth-century Baianist controversy at the University of Louvain: student notes made during Michael Baius’ lectures on the Bible during the 1560s. The commentary on Romans 7 taught by the Royal Professor of Sacred Scripture contains a discussion on the sinfulness of concupiscence, the effect of the Fall driving humankind to sin. A contested concept between Catholics and Protestants, the nature of concupiscentia also lies at the core of debates on the orthodoxy of Baius’ justification theology, both early modern and more recent. The professor’s lecture on Romans 7 is analysed against his published treatises, the censures (1565–1567) and papal bull (1567) condemning certain propositions as heretical, and the Tridentine Decree on Original Sin (1546). While Baius’ Augustinian revaluation of humanity’s wounded nature (natura viciata) moved away from the Thomistic conception of concupiscence as innate, but disordered, he did respect the boundaries set by the Council of Trent. Indeed, Baius taught his positive theology in the interstices between the educational application of the Tridentine Decrees and the gradual assertion of dominance by a renewed Thomism in Catholic orthodoxy. I argue that such a historical reading of Baius’ ideas is the key to avoid the earlier dogmatic assessments of his theology.

The Function of Mounts in Free-Ranging Barbary Macaques (Macaca sylvanus)

Generally, nonreproductive sex is thought to act as “social grease,” facilitating peaceful coexistence between subjects that lack close genetic ties. However, specifc nonreproductive sexual behaviors may fulfill different functions. With this study, we aimed to test whether nonreproductive mounts in Barbary macaques are used to 1) assert dominance, 2) reinforce social relationships, and/or 3) solve conflicts. We analyzed nonreproductive mounts (N = 236) and postmount behavior in both aggressive and nonaggressive contexts, in 118 individuals belonging to two semi-free-ranging groups at La Montagne des Singes (France). As predicted by the dominance assertion hypothesis, the probability to be the mounter increased with rank difference, especially in aggressive contexts (increasing from 0.066 to 0.797 in nonaggressive contexts, and from 0.011 to 0.969 in aggressive contexts, when the rank difference was minimal vs. maximal). The strength of the social bond did not significantly predict the proportion of mounts across dyads in nonaggressive contexts, providing no support for the relationship reinforcement hypothesis. Finally, in support of the conflict resolution hypothesis, when individuals engaged in postconflict mounts, 1) the probability of being involved in further aggression decreased from 0.825 to 0.517, while 2) the probability of being involved in grooming interactions with each other increased from 0.119 to 0.606. The strength of the social bond between former opponents had no significant effect on grooming occurrence and agonistic behavior after postconflict mounts. Overall, our findings suggest that nonreproductive mounts in Barbary macaques have different functions that are not affected by the strength of the social bond.

Migration, Emigration, and Immigration: African Cartoonists Draw the Lines

Migration, Emigration, and Immigration: African Cartoonists Draw the Lines

Object correspondence: Using perceived causality to infer how the visual system knows what went where

Anne Treisman and colleagues developed an influential theoretical framework surrounding the construct of "object files" as a means of understanding the functional need for an episodic representation of objects as they move, change, disappear, and reappear from view (Kahneman, Treisman, & Gibbs, Cognitive Psychology, 24, 175-219, 1992; Treisman, The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 40, 201-237, 1988). Within that framework, object files are defined through the process of object correspondence, whereby stimuli are associated with and represented as later instantiations of existing object representations and are used to selectively update those representations. A central assertion of the object file framework is that object correspondence is established on the basis of spatiotemporal continuity, without regard to feature information. We tested this assertion by investigating whether feature information, separate from spatiotemporal information, can determine how object correspondence is resolved. We used the perception of causality in simple dynamic displays, which provides a means of inferring how object correspondence is resolved. We found that, contrary to the spatiotemporal dominance assertion, feature information is used to resolve object correspondence. We suggest that the object-file framework be extended to reflect the importance of both feature and spatiotemporal information in establishing and maintaining episodic object representations.

"As Important … in My Childhood as the Catholic Church and the Fight for Irish Freedom": Legacies of Conflict in Maeve Brennan's Cherryfield Avenue Stories

"As Important … in My Childhood as the Catholic Church and the Fight for Irish Freedom":Legacies of Conflict in Maeve Brennan's Cherryfield Avenue Stories Ailbhe McDaid (bio) After many decades of obscurity, Maeve Brennan's writing has recently regained popular and scholarly status.1 The relevance and richness of her work is indicated not only by the popularity of her reissued short stories but also by the attention that her work has attracted from a range of critical perspectives. Thought-provoking attention has been paid to the New York and Hampton contexts as well as the domestic, urban, and suburban Dublin settings of her short stories, to the unheimlich and Gothic tones in her novella The Visitor, and to her presentation of the experiences of Irish migrants to the United States. Angela Bourke's biography of Brennan underpins all this scholarship, as a document both of Brennan's life and of the wider contexts into and out of which she wrote. Brennan's family heritage within the Irish republican movement as the child of Robert and Una, both prominent activists during the Anglo-Irish War and civil war, is regularly mentioned as part of the writer's biography, and this article argues that the aesthetic and thematic legacies of growing up during this volatile period are crucial elements in her writing. Editor William Maxwell declares in his introduction to The Springs of Affection: Stories of Dublin, "her [End Page 79] best stories are always set in Ireland and have no characters that are not Irish"; Brennan's Cherryfield Avenue stories are of particular interest here, although the long reach of childhood disruption can also be perceived in stories based in the United States.2 As Heather Ingman notes in her essay "The Short Story" in A History of Modern Irish Women's Literature, Brennan's stories, with their "emphasis on realism, reminiscence and place," depict a bleak Irish society after independence: "introverted and xenophobic with a narrow definition of femininity."3 Brennan's dissatisfaction with Ireland and its strict confines for women is embedded in the vivid female characters she creates: ranging from malevolent to miserable, Brennan's women share a common experience of extremely limited autonomy. Indeed, many of her stories circle around the petty power struggles that come to define restricted lives, struggles that appear insignificant but are a distillation of the essence of frustrated human interaction. Mary Ramsay's assertion of dominance over her small sphere, the ladies' toilet of the Royal Hotel, is resisted by Miss Williams in "The Holy Terror"; in "Christmas Eve," Delia Bagot smuggles Bennie, her pet dog, into her single bedroom against her husband Martin's knowledge; the fictionalized Una Brennan deals out excessive charity from her kitchen against her brother's advice in "The Old Man of the Sea." The near-pitiful defense of these assertions suggests the contraction of women's sphere of authority in Irish society: deliberate gestures of independence that take place in a domestic setting, underpinned by negotiations between private and public, male and female, and sacrifice and service in each short story. Bourke observes that the actual Cherryfield Avenue house "should have meant independence and stability at last" for the Brennan family, but rather the political climate meant that "lasting, bitter, political division" followed and "began to take its toll on personal happiness."4 Incisively, Bourke further comments that, "for women like Una Brennan, idealistic activists relegated to domesticity by the relentlessly conservative men who now dominated both factions, the new regime brought only disillusionment."5 The struggles of dominance and domain that take place in Brennan's writing can be read as a (regularly failed) negotiation for selfhood, status, and social capital within the family structure and, implicitly, the wider Irish society. This article concentrates on legacies of conflict in Brennan's work, specifically in four stories—"The Morning after the Big Fire," "The Old Man of the [End Page 80] Sea," "The Day We Got Our Own Back," and "The Clever One"—from the Cherryfield Avenue era, the semi-autobiographical stories that depict the Brennan family in the period 1921–28.6 These stories were originally published in the New Yorker and reappeared...

Editor's Introduction to Volume 12

Editor's Introduction to Volume 12

Do same-sex mounts function as dominance assertion in male golden snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana)?

It has been hypothesized that same-sex mounts can reflect the hierarchical relationship in a mounting dyad and it is widely deemed that mounting and being mounted are demonstrations of dominant and subordinate status, respectively. In this research, we aimed to test whether same-sex mounts function as dominance assertion in male golden snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana). We investigated this behavior in eight-individuals, captive all-male unit (AMU) in Shanghai wild animal park, China. Behavioral observations were conducted with a total of 1,855 mounts recorded from November, 2014 to June, 2015, during which the alpha male was replaced in the beginning of April. In support to the dominance assertion hypothesis, we found that during the entire study period the higher-ranking male was more likely to be the mounter than the lower-ranking one, except the mounts that happened among juveniles in peaceful and playful social contexts. Our study indicates that the hierarchical relationship of a mounting dyad can be influenced by the age-class of the participants and the social context where mounting occurs. We suggest that same-sex mounts might have different functions in different age groups and be multifunctional in a species.

The functions of non-reproductive mounts among male Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus).

Same-sex, non-reproductive mounts have been observed in a number of primate species and in various social contexts. However, the function of non-reproductive mounts is still largely unknown. We aimed to test whether non-reproductive mounts function to assert dominance and as appeasement behavior in male Barbary macaques. We analyzed post-mount behavior in 54 macaques belonging to two captive groups at Trentham Monkey Forest in Staffordshire, using 10 min post-mount/matched-control focal sessions collected either on the mounter or the mountee. In support of the dominance assertion hypothesis, the higher-ranking male within a mounting pair was more likely to be the mounter than the mountee, and to mock bite the lower-ranking male. In support of the appeasement hypothesis, the former mounting partners were more likely to exchange grooming and to have a lower frequency of self-scratching (a measure of social tension) after a non-reproductive mount than in control sessions. Our study indicates that non-reproductive mounts have different and not mutually exclusive functions and can modulate the quality of social interactions among group members. We discuss the possible factors that can affect the occurrence of non-reproductive mounts within and between species.

The Vatican War on Nuns

The Vatican has waged a war on nuns who have followed the dictates of Vatican II. The war has centered on clothing as a symbol of what the male dominated Vatican thinks of as acceptable feminine behavior.It should be no revelation to note that men have used dress as a means for asserting their dominance over women. Dress has symbolized women’s place in society perhaps as long as there has been society. In general, of course, one’s manner of dress symbolizes and advertises social position. However, I mean more than merely class or status here when I speak of masculine assertion of dominance over women. I mean the assertion of power, the right to that power, and as part of that right the innate privilege of exercising choice regarding what should be done in society. As part of that right, standards of purity and modesty hold a superior and integral place.

Reden und Erzählen. Figurenrede in Wolframs Parzival und Titurel

Reviewed by: Reden und Erzählen. Figurenrede in Wolframs Parzival und Titurel Thomas Kerth Reden und Erzählen. Figurenrede in Wolframs Parzival und Titurel. Von Martin Schuhmann. Heidelberg: Winter, 2008. 259 Seiten. €42,00. In this published dissertation, Martin Schuhmann investigates the role of epic dialogue in the complex literary organization of Parzival and Titurel with the purpose of gaining a better understanding of Wolfram's narrative technique. Willehalm is, for the most part, excluded from his consideration. Schuhmann's purpose is broader than those of the relatively few previous critical studies on speech acts in Wolfram's romances, which rather examine specific themes conveyed in them or the formal aspects of their construction. He considers five relational aspects of epic speech: to the speaker; to the work; to development of themes; to the poetics of the text; and to the narration. This work is, however, not a systematic, comprehensive examination of dialogue in Wolfram, nor does it pretend to be; each section could conceivably be read independently [End Page 111] of the others. The author comes to no grand conclusions and views his work rather as a basis for further study of the topic (242). Along the way, however, he makes many interesting and insightful observations. Of primary importance for his thinking is the recognition that the utterances of a literary character in both direct and indirect speech are themselves—contrary to what they seem—a fiction that functions on two levels: they are simultaneously directed at another character in the text and at the recipient of the text, embedded as they are in the larger communicational relationship that exists between author and reader. He bases his analysis of speech as a means of characterization of speakers on the repertoire of techniques suggested by Manfred Pfister for the drama, which has at is basis the distinction between how a speaker explicitly and intentionally represents himself and the implicit information he reveals through his use of language, although both Pfister and Schuhmann recognize that explicit information also includes implications that cannot be separated from it. Schuhmann also analyzes the implications themselves on two levels that are also not mutually exclusive: the speech act—that is, an action that manifests itself in the production of speech—and its form. He concludes that, with a few possible exceptions, formal elements like vocabulary, semantic fields, meter, rhyme, enjambement, and anacoluthon are not employed as a significant means of characterizing the speaker. Of particular interest in this context is his analysis of the use of first-person pronouns in the first direct speech in Parzival (6, 23ff.), Galoes's reaction to his courtiers' request that he grant Gahmuret a fief in Anschouwe. Schuhmann offers convincing evidence that Galoes's seeming nobility of character and generosity towards his brother are actually an assertion of dominance. Schuhmann finds three phases in the characterization of Parzival: uncourtly speech before his encounter with Gurnemanz; uncertainty in courtly speech in books IV and V; and thereafter, courtly speech that is indistinguishable from that of other characters. He concludes that Parzival's early speeches are not necessarily uncourtly in their formal elements or lack of rhetorical sophistication, although they do reveal a certain lack of familiarity with the niceties of proper courtly discourse; they are, however, uncourtly in content, specifically the repeated references to his mother. In a comparison of the third-phase speeches of Parzival with those of Gawan, he suggests that while they are formally very similar, there are clear thematic differences. With regard to minne Gawan continually employs the rhetoric of âventiure, while Parzival emphasizes the concept of triuwe. In Parzival's monologues the basic concepts of knighthood are thematized, which is not true of Gawan's speeches. Gawan regards his êre as self-evident—of course, this is an aspect of Gawan's character that is not exclusive to Parzival—and he manifests a courtly tone even in response to aggressive behavior, while Parzival repeatedly exposes his insecurity with regard to his status. Gawan is communicative, while Parzival's silence is thematized not only in his failure to ask Anfortas the Grail question, but as he sits with Condwiramurs (Parzival, 188, 21), when he fails to...

Scent‐marking and intrasexual competition in a cooperative carnivore with low reproductive skew

AbstractMost mammals scent‐mark and a variety of hypotheses have been put forward to explain this behaviour. Differences in the main function of scent‐marking between species are likely to be related to differences in social systems. Here, we investigate the functions of scent‐marking in a cooperatively breeding carnivore. In the banded mongoose (Mungos mungo), individuals of both sexes commonly breed in their natal group and reproductive skew within groups is low. Using experimental scent‐mark presentations, we tested predictions of the intrasexual competition, self‐advertisement to potential mates and dominance assertion hypotheses. Both males and females responded more intensely to scent marks of same‐sexed than of opposite‐sexed individuals. Dominant individuals counter‐marked more than subordinate ones and males showed higher counter‐marking rates than females, but only marginally so. During oestrus, responses to scent marks were increased by both sexes. Our findings strongly indicate that scent‐marking in the banded mongoose primarily serves a purpose in intrasexual competition both between and within groups. Unlike in other social herpestids and some solitary rodents, we found little evidence for self‐advertisement. We suggest that the peculiar social system of the banded mongoose results in self‐advertisement losing importance in this species, shifting the main function of scent‐marking to intrasexual competition.

How Big, How Many? Enterprise Size Distributions in Tourism and Other Industries

Tourism often is characterized as being dominated by small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), a characteristic that leads to certain challenges for the sector. This research article examines the degree of the assertion of dominance by SMEs and whether tourism is different than other industry sectors. The distribution of enterprise sizes within specific tourism industries also is examined. The results indicate that the percentage of small firms in tourism is lower than that in the overall business sector and that the percentage of medium-sized tourism firms is slightly higher than in the overall economy. Recreation and entertainment firms display the most uniform dispersal of enterprise sizes, whereas the travel trade shows a very high concentration of SMEs. Some implications of these findings are suggested.

The annual testosterone profile in cooperatively breeding superb fairy-wrens, Malurus cyaneus , reflects their extreme infidelity

Superb fairy-wrens are cooperatively breeding birds that combine stable, socially monogamous pair bonds and high levels of paternal care, with extreme levels of extra-pair mating and high levels of sexual competition. Our aim was to determine which testosterone correlates would prevail in such a life history that combines features that are conventionally associated with divergent hormone profiles. Unlike the situation in other species with monogamous pair bonds and high levels of paternal care, testosterone was elevated for a very long period of several months. During breeding there was a broad peak in testosterone followed by a gradual decline: this resembles the profile found in polygynous and promiscuous species. We found that three factors correlated with testosterone: development of the sexually selected nuptial plumage, social status and extra-group mating opportunities. Testosterone started increasing months prior to breeding, when the males that are later preferred as extra-group sires develop their nuptial plumage. Although these males did not have higher testosterone levels during breeding, they sustained high testosterone for much longer, and this might lend reliability to this sexual signal. Dominant males in groups had higher testosterone than pair-dwelling males and subordinate helpers. This was not due to differences in age, reproductive capability or mating opportunities, but was presumably associated with the assertion of dominance. In contrast to findings in other species, male testosterone level was not correlated with whether the resident female was fertile or had dependent nestlings. However, testosterone was strongly correlated with the total number of fertile females in the population, and hence with the opportunities for extra-group mating.

Induced homosexual behaviour in male house finches (Carpodacus mexicanus): the “Prisoner Effect”

We observed homosexual behaviour within a captive flock of male house finches (Carpodacus mexicanus) that was physically isolated from females for the duration of a breeding season. Male-male begging, allofeeding and copulation attempts were linked to social dominance rank within the group, as subordinate males begged from, were fed by, and attempted to copulate with dominant males. Levels of circulating testosterone were not significantly related to inter-male behaviour. Along with the assertion of dominance, we presume that the regulation of sociosexual tension is another potential function of the male homosexual behaviour observed in this study.

Why does dominance decline with age in wintering snow buntings?

The influence of sex and age on success in contests over access to food was studied in a wintering population of snow buntings,Plectrophenax nivalisin northeast Scotland over a 5-year period. Males won 87% of dyadic interactions with females, but, in contrast to many other studies, first-winter birds won a majority (60–70%) of intra-sexual interactions with same-sex adults. First-winter males continued to have greater success than adult males even after controlling for an individual's role within a contest, the degree to which the contest escalated, and the severity of the weather. Contests won by adult males were more likely to have escalated, perhaps indicating a greater cost, than those won by first-winter males. Dominance status dropped from an individual's first to its second winter of life, but not thereafter. It is argued that winning winter food fights is of more immediate benefit to first-winter birds, and that reversal of the usual age-related dominance pattern may be due to the species’ itinerant nature in winter combined with a lack of long-term pair-bonds or individual recognition. Assertion of dominance therefore carries only short-term benefits which may not override the costs of aggressive behaviour.