Assault Disclosure Research Articles

“You Just Gotta Watch What You Say in Those Situations”: A Normative Approach to Confidant Communication Surrounding Sexual Assault Disclosure

Although less than a third of sexual assaults are reported to authorities, survivors often disclose to family, friends, or romantic partners. However, survivor-confidant communication during and following disclosure may be challenging. Research has offered little insight into the theoretical bases for such difficulty or the ways confidants effectively address the challenges they perceive. Through qualitative interviews with 26 confidants, we develop normative theory of confidants’ experiences of and responses to sexual assault disclosure. Disclosure sets the stage for challenges in communicating support and respecting survivor privacy. Confidants respond via an array of behaviors, each with relative advantages and disadvantages.

Sexual Assault Disclosure Recipients' Experiences: Emotional Distress and Changes in the Relationship With the Victim.

Sexual assault victims are more likely to disclose their experience to friends and family than formal support sources (e.g., police, counselors). As such, disclosure receipt is a relatively common occurrence, but little is known about the recipients' disclosure experience. This study examined predictors of recipient emotional distress and positive and negative changes in the victim-recipient relationship postdisclosure among 69 female undergraduates at 3 universities. Predictors of distress included greater self-rated closeness to the victim and greater confusion about how to help. Positive changes were predicted by greater closeness and less responsibility attributed to the victim, and negative changes were predicted by less closeness, greater assigned responsibility, and greater perceived ineffectiveness of one's help. Implications for improving the disclosure experience via psychoeducational interventions are presented.

Qualitative Researcher Reflexivity: A Follow-Up Study with Female Sexual Assault Survivors

Motivated by researcher reflexivity, the author sought to learn from participants about the sensitive, ethical issues of the qualitative research process. The current study followed up with eight women who had previously participated in an interview-based study about sexual assault disclosure. Multiple sources of qualitative data were triangulated, including interviews, follow-up interviews, interviews from the original study, and participant checks. Phenomenological analysis yielded five themes: (a) Meaning of Participation, (b) Trust in the Researcher, (c) Connection with the Other Participants, (d) Changing Comfort, and (e) Recommendations to Increase Participants’ Comfort. Based on these results, recommendations are provided for researchers conducting reflexive qualitative research practices.

Psychological consequences associated with positive and negative responses to disclosure of sexual assault among college women: a prospective study.

A prospective design was utilized to explore the impact of social reactions to sexual assault disclosure among college women who experienced sexual victimization over a 4-month academic quarter. Women completed baseline, 4- and 7-month assessments of symptomatology, beliefs about why sexual assault occurs, victimization, and social reactions to sexual assault disclosure. Accounting for symptomatology or beliefs reported prior to the assault, positive social reactions were not associated with victims' subsequent symptomatology or beliefs. However, accounting for symptomatology or beliefs reported prior to the assault, higher negative social reactions were associated with victims' post-assault reports of hostility, fear, and beliefs about why sexual assault occurs.

College Students’ Beliefs Regarding Help Seeking for Male and Female Sexual Assault Survivors: Even Less Support for Male Survivors

This study explored college students’ perceptions regarding barriers to disclosure of sexual assault and helpfulness of campus resources for survivors of sexual assault. To better understand barriers and social reactions to disclosure of sexual assault, it is important to examine peer perceptions of barriers and resources for assault survivors. A total of 475 undergraduate students estimated the frequency with which various barriers prevent sexual assault disclosure and rated the helpfulness of several campus resources for both male and female survivors. Students perceived that barriers to disclosure were more likely to prevent men than women from telling someone they were assaulted and seeking help. Students also believed that campus resources are more helpful for female than male survivors. Students’ negative perceptions of disclosure and help seeking for male survivors indicate that more education regarding the sexual assault of males and inclusive outreach is needed.

Social Reactions, Self-Blame and Problem Drinking in Adult Sexual Assault Survivors.

The purpose of this study was to test a model of the relations of social reactions to sexual assault disclosure, self-blame and problem drinking. This is the first study to investigate whether type of self-blame has different relationships with social reactions and problem drinking in a large, diverse sample of sexually assaulted women. These relationships are important to investigate in order to identify specific targets for treatment and intervention with sexual assault victims and their social networks. Community-residing female sexual assault survivors (N = 1863) in a large metropolitan area completed a mail survey about sexual assault, social reactions to disclosure, self-blame attributions, and problem drinking symptoms. Structural equation modeling showed that characterological self-blame mediated the effect of negative social reactions on drinking, but behavioral self-blame did not function as a mediator. A second model showed unique relationships of specific positive and negative social reactions to drinking through characterological and behavioral self-blame. Characterological self-blame needs to be targeted in treatment and intervention with survivors, as it appears to be a key mechanism through which social reactions may influence recovery. Secondary prevention with informal social networks should educate people about social reactions to avoid negative reactions and promote those that are helpful, so people can better respond to survivors' sexual assault disclosures and improve recovery.

Rape prevention through empowerment of adolescent girls.

Sexual assault is a major cause of injury, unplanned pregnancy, HIV infection, and mental health problems worldwide. In parts of sub-Saharan Africa, sexual assault has reached epidemic proportions. This study evaluated the efficacy of an empowerment and self-defense intervention for adolescent girls to decrease the incidence of sexual assault and harassment in Nairobi's large informal settlements. A prospective cohort of 1978 adolescents from 4 neighborhoods near Nairobi were taught empowerment, deescalation, and self-defense skills in six 2-hour sessions. The standard-of-care (SOC) group (n = 428) received a life skills class. Self-reported, anonymous survey data were collected at baseline and 10.5 months after intervention. Annual sexual assault rates decreased from 17.9/100 person-years at baseline to 11.1 at follow-up (rate ratio = 1.61; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.26-1.86; P < .001); there was no significant change in the SOC group (14.3 to 14.0, rate ratio = 1.02; 95% CI, 0.67-1.57, P = .92). Sexual assault disclosure in the intervention group increased from 56% to 75% (P = .006), compared with a constant incidence of disclosure (53%) in the SOC group. The majority (52.3%) of adolescents in the intervention group reported using skills learned to stop an assault. This intervention decreased sexual assault rates among adolescent girls in Kenya. The intervention was also associated with an increase in the disclosure of assaults, thereby enabling survivors to seek care and support and possibly leading to the identification and prosecution of perpetrators. This model should be adaptable to other settings both in Africa and globally.

Latinas’ Experience of Sexual Assault Disclosure

This study describes Latina’s experience of sexual assault disclosure. This study contributes Latinas’ voices to the literature on sexual assault disclosure, about feelings experienced during the initial disclosure—regret, shame, and negative judgment of self, and about consequences experienced from the disclosure—feeling spoiled for marriage, silenced, and disbelieved. It points to the need for further research on social interventions to empower Latina sexual assault survivors. Although the literature review identified some research in the area of sexual assault with Latinas, there has been a limited amount of research conducted on feelings and consequences experienced specifically by Latinas during a sexual assault disclosure.

Social Reactions to Sexual Assault Disclosure and Problem Drinking

Sexual assault survivors receive various positive and negative social reactions to assault disclosures, yet little is known about mechanisms linking these social reactions to posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms and problem drinking. Data from a large, diverse sample of women who had experienced adult sexual assault were analyzed with structural equation modeling to test a theoretical model of the relationships between specific negative social reactions (e.g., controlling, infantilizing) and positive reactions (e.g., tangible support), perceived control over recovery, PTSD, and drinking outcomes (N = 1,863). A model disaggregating controlling reactions from infantilizing reactions showed that infantilizing reactions in particular related to less perceived control, which in turn was related to more PTSD and problem drinking, whereas controlling reactions were not related to perceived control, PTSD, or problem drinking. Tangible support was related to increased perceived control over recovery, yet it was not protective against PTSD or problem drinking. Finally, PTSD and drinking to cope fully mediated the effect of perceived control on problem drinking. Implications for practice and suggestions for future research are discussed.

Adolescent Sexual Assault Disclosure: The Impact of Peers, Families, and Schools

Adolescent sexual assault survivors are more likely to seek support from peers and families than to formal help systems, such as the medical and legal systems. In this study, we conducted in-depth qualitative interviews with N = 20 adolescent sexual assault survivors aged 14-17 who obtained services from Sexual Assault Nurse Examiner Programs to understand the pathways that led them to seek formal help. Our goal was to examine how survivors' initial disclosures to peers, families, and schools facilitated adolescents' access to formal help systems. Additionally, we explored how peer, family and school systems interact as mesosystems to effect subsequent disclosures. Results show that the peer and family microsystems were decisive in survivors' willingness to enter formal systems. Disclosure became more complex when peer, family, and school personnel all became aware of the assault. When these mesosystem interactions occurred with survivors' consent and produced a helpful response, they were perceived as positive. Alternatively, mesosystem interactions in which survivors had minimal control resulted in greater reluctance to enter formal systems. These conclusions highlight the need educating informal support providers about community services in order to make the disclosure process easier and beneficial for survivors' recovery and well-being.

Social Reactions to Disclosure of Sexual Victimization and Adjustment Among Survivors of Sexual Assault

How a support provider responds to disclosure of sexual victimization has important implications for the process of recovery. The present study examines the associations between various positive and negative social reactions to sexual assault disclosure and psychological distress, coping behavior, social support, and self-esteem in a sample of college women (N = 374). Social reactions to assault disclosure that attempted to control the survivor's decisions were associated with increased symptoms of posttraumatic stress, depression, and anxiety and lower perceptions of reassurance of worth from others. Blaming social reactions were associated with less self-esteem and engagement in coping via problem solving. Social reactions that provided emotional support to the survivor were associated with increased coping by seeking emotional support. Contrary to expectations, social reactions that treated the survivor differently were associated with higher self-esteem. Implications are discussed.

Factors Associated With College Women’s Labeling of Sexual Victimization

Despite high rates of sexual assault among college women, most victims do not label the experience as sexual assault or rape. Prior research examining labeling of sexual victimization has focused on women's characterization of rape experiences as either not victimization or victimization. This study extends prior research by exploring factors associated with labeling various forms of sexual victimization as "not victimization," a "serious miscommunication," or a "sexual assault, date rape, rape, or crime." A sample of 1,060 college women reported on their experiences of sexual victimization since the age of 14 years. Women who reported experiences of prior sexual victimization (n = 371) indicated their level of acquaintance with the assailant, assault disclosure, substance use at time of assault, attributions of self- and perpetrator-blame for the assault, and labeling of the experience. Most women who reported experiences of sexual victimization did not self-identify as victims, and 38% labeled sexual victimization as a serious miscommunication. Greater acquaintance with the perpetrator, higher behavioral self-blame, and victim substance use at the time of the assault were associated with labeling sexual assault experiences as a serious miscommunication. Implications are discussed.

Negative Social Reactions to Assault Disclosure as a Mediator between Self-Blame and Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms Among Survivors of Interpersonal Assault

The type of causal attributions offered for traumatic life events has been documented as a potential vulnerability factor for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). However, few investigations have sought to identify the mechanisms by which such explanations are associated with greater posttraumatic distress. One possible factor that may account for the relationship between maladaptive attributional tendencies and PTSD symptoms is the quality of social reactions received from one's social network upon disclosure. The aim of the present study was to examine the relationship between self-blaming attributions provided for traumatic events, negative social reactions, and PTSD symptom severity. Undergraduate psychology students (N = 68), who reported previously experiencing interpersonal assault, completed measures assessing their attributions for their assault and the quality of reactions received from members of their social network upon disclosure. Results from a statistical mediational analysis suggest that a self-blame may be associated with poorer psychological adjustment by virtue of negative social reactions. Results of this study further our understanding of risk and resilience among assault survivors and may have significant implications for treatment interventions for individuals with PTSD.

P120 Correlation of patient completed triage tools with patient symptoms in an integrated sexual health service

BackgroundTriage tools (TT) were introduced in an integrated sexual health service to enable patients to be streamed to the most appropriate healthcare professional. The tool used is a patient completed...

The Ties That Bind: Understanding the Impact of Sexual Assault Disclosure on Survivors' Relationships with Friends, Family, and Partners

A growing body of research suggests that the type of social reactions sexual assault survivors receive from others can have a profound impact on their health and well-being. Far less is known about the impact of social reactions on the ensuing relationship between survivors and the people to whom they disclose. The current study sought to address this gap in the literature by examining the impact of disclosure on survivors' relationships with friends, family members, and romantic partners. A total of 76 rape survivors described 153 different disclosures to informal support providers. Qualitative analysis suggested that most relationships either were strengthened or remained strong following the disclosure, but a substantial number of survivors described relationships that deteriorated or remained poor following the disclosure. These outcomes were related to the quality of the relationship prior to the disclosure and to survivors' perceptions of the reactions they received during the disclosure. Implications of these findings for research and practice are discussed.

To Whom Do College Women Confide Following Sexual Assault? A Prospective Study of Predictors of Sexual Assault Disclosure and Social Reactions

A prospective methodology was used to explore predictors of sexual assault disclosure among college women, identify who women tell about sexual victimization, and examine the responses of informal support providers (N = 374). Women most often confided in a female peer. Increased coping via seeking emotional support, strong attachments, and high tendency to disclose stressful information predicted adolescent sexual assault disclosure and disclosure over the 7-month interim. Less acquaintance with the perpetrator predicted disclosure over the follow-up, including experiences of revictimization. Victim and perpetrator alcohol use at the time of the assault also predicted disclosure over the follow-up. Implications are presented.

Is Disclosure of Sexual Traumas Helpful? Comparing Experimental Laboratory Versus Field Study Results

Disclosing trauma is generally viewed as beneficial for survivors, yet few studies have used experimental methods to determine whether disclosure of sexual traumas in particular has positive effects. This article compares and contrasts knowledge based on lab studies of sexual trauma disclosure using Pennebaker's (1997) experimental disclosure paradigm with data from nonexperimental studies of sexual assault disclosure. The most surprising result was that unlike the majority of experimental trauma disclosure studies using Pennebaker's method that have typically shown positive effects of disclosure, both laboratory and field studies of sexual assault have not shown positive effects, particularly when victims receive negative responses from others. Future research on disclosure of sexual victimization should consider various mediators and moderators, which are suggested by existing findings, as well as a broader range of adjustment outcomes within an ecological framework.

Disclosure of Sexual Victimization: The Effects of Pennebaker's Emotional Disclosure Paradigm on Physical and Psychological Distress

Research suggests that many sexual assault survivors do not disclose their experience, which may increase associated distress. Pennebaker's emotional disclosure paradigm has been shown to ameliorate psychological and physical distress in individuals exposed to stressful events. The current study assessed the effectiveness of this paradigm with sexual assault survivors (N = 74). College women with a history of sexual assault wrote about their most severe victimization or about how they spend their time (control). Then 73 women (98.6%) completed a 1-month follow-up assessment. Results indicated that across writing sessions, the disclosure group reported greater reductions in negative mood immediately post-writing. However, both groups showed significant reductions in physical complaints, psychological distress, and traumatic stress symptoms at the 1-month follow-up, suggesting no added benefit to disclosure of a sexual assault using a brief written paradigm.

Perceptions of peer rape myth acceptance and disclosure in a sample of college sexual assault survivors.

University of TulsaThere are many empirically supported treatments available to help sexual assaultsurvivors improve their postassault outcomes. Unfortunately, many survivors do notdisclose their assault to others or seek formal treatment services and thus are not ableto beneÞt from these treatments. This study examines the relations between survivorsOperceptions of peer rape myth acceptance (RMA), disclosure behaviors, and psycho-logical well-being. Sixty-four sexually assaulted college undergraduates and 159 oftheirnonassaultedpeersparticipatedinthisstudy.SurvivorssigniÞcantlyoverestimatedtheir peersO RMA, and this overestimation predicted posttraumatic symptoms. Contraryto hypotheses, the relation between estimated peer RMA and posttraumatic distress wasnot mediated by assault disclosure variables. As estimated peer RMA increased,survivors reported disclosing fewer assault details. These Þndings have implications forboth sexual assault survivors and the general population.Keywords:

Correlates of Serious Suicidal Ideation and Attempts in Female Adult Sexual Assault Survivors

Relations between (a) serious suicidal ideation and attempts and (b) demographics, trauma history, assault characteristics, post-assault outcomes, and psychosocial variables were examined among female adult sexual assault survivors. Younger, minority, and bisexual survivors reported greater ideation. More traumas, drug use, and assault disclosure related to greater attempts, whereas perceived control over recovery was related to fewer attempts. Child sexual abuse and some assault characteristics predicted suicidal behavior. Depression was related to suicidal behavior until psychosocial variables were accounted for. Specifically, using substances to cope and self-blame predicted greater ideation, whereas receiving aid/information support was related to less ideation. Implications for research and treatment are discussed.