Aspects Of Stability Research Articles

A comprehensive examination of the linear and numerical stability aspects of the bubble collision model in the TRACE-1D two-fluid model applied to vertical disperse flow in a PWR core channel under loss of coolant accident conditions

The one-dimensional Two-Fluid concept uses an area-average approach to simplify the time and phase-averaged Two-Fluid conservation equations, making it more suitable for addressing difficulties at an industrial scale. Nevertheless, the mathematical framework has inherent weaknesses due to the loss of details throughout the averaging procedures. This limitation makes the conventional model inappropriate for some flow regimes, where short-wavelength perturbations experience uncontrolled amplification, leading to solutions that need to be physically accurate. The critical factor in resolving this problem is the integration of closure relations. These relationships play a crucial function in reintroducing essential physical characteristics, thus correcting the loss that occurs during averaging and guaranteeing the stability of the model. To improve the accuracy of predictions, it is essential to assess the stability and grid dependence of one-dimensional formulations, which are particularly affected by closure relations and numerical schemes. The current research presented in the text focuses on improving the well-posedness of the TFM, specifically within the TRACE code, which is widely utilized for nuclear reactor safety assessments. Incorporating a bubble collision model in the momentum equations is demonstrated to enhance the TFM's resilience, especially in scenarios with high void fractions where conventional TFMs may face challenges. The analysis presents a linear stability analysis performed for the transient one-dimensional Two-Fluid Model of system code TRACE within the framework of vertically dispersed flows. The main emphasis is on evaluating the stability characteristics of the model while also acknowledging its susceptibility to closure relations and numerical techniques.

Correlation between surface/bulk properties and electrochemical cycling performance of pure silicon anode materials

State-of-the-art lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) employ silicon (Si)-graphite composite anode with just a few percentages of Si active material, whose cycle-life relies on a stable solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) layer. As a number of various types of industrial Si active materials are currently available, an informative guideline based on the material properties and resultant cycling performance of different pure Si (i.e., without graphite) anode materials is strongly needed for material selection. The present study provides for the first time the correlation among material's surface and bulk properties, the SEI formation behavior, and cycling behavior of highly loaded pure Si anodes (2.3 mAh cm−2) prepared from four different industrial active materials, which are SiOx, carbon-coated Si, and bare Si with submicron and micron sizes. Commercial electrolyte with 10 wt% fluoroethylene carbonate additive is used for electrochemical performance evaluation. Based on solid-state NMR, XPS, and electrochemical analysis results, SiOx is determined to be relatively beneficial for practical applications beyond Si materials, in the aspects of high structural and particle morphology stability, cycling stability and suppressed interfacial resistance. This is mainly because of more effective accommodation of volume change of Si and oxygen-enriched surface (SEI) stability. The data give insight into the rational design of well-working Si-dominant or pure Si anodes for high energy density LIBs.

Ab Initio Investigation of the Structural, Elastic, Dynamic, Electronic, and Magnetic Properties of Cubic Perovskite CeCrO3.

We presented the results of various aspects related to structural, elastic, electronic, dynamic, and magnetic parameters of cubic perovskite CeCrO3 by means of the full-potential linearized augmented plane wave (FP-LAPW) approach. The calculation of the unit cell volume against the total energy curve confirms that CeCrO3 exhibits higher energetic stability in the ferromagnetic (FM) order. Calculated structural aspects at equilibrium demonstrate excellent similarity to present information, lending credibility to our results. Moreover, monocrystalline elastic constants have been analyzed numerically. These constants provide insights into several related properties, including elastic anisotropy, mechanical stability, and several polycrystalline elastic aspects. Furthermore, the phonon dispersion curves obtained from our calculations reveal the existence of soft modes, which suggests the potential metastability of CeCrO3. Through an analysis of the energy band dispersions, the half-metallic nature of this material is confirmed, such as Eg = 3.00 and 3.13 eV for the HM state within generalized gradient approximations Perdew-Burke-Ernzerhof (GGA-PBE) and Tran-Blaha modified Becke-Johnson (TB-mBJ) calculations, respectively, as well as the FM total magnetic moment of 4.000 μB. Partial density of states (PDOS) aided in identifying the electronic states that contribute to the energy bands. Finally, the computed total magnetic moment aligns fit the theoretical findings available in the literature.

THE ROLE OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN ENHANCING TAX COMPLIANCE AND FINANCIAL REGULATION

Artificial Intelligence (AI) has emerged as a transformative force in various domains, including tax compliance and financial regulation. This review explores the pivotal role of AI in enhancing these critical aspects of governance and economic stability. In the realm of tax compliance, AI-driven solutions offer unprecedented opportunities for governments to streamline tax administration processes, detect non-compliance, and mitigate tax evasion. Machine learning algorithms can analyze vast volumes of financial data with remarkable speed and accuracy, identifying patterns indicative of tax fraud or evasion. Furthermore, AI-powered predictive analytics enable tax authorities to anticipate taxpayer behavior and allocate resources effectively for enforcement purposes. By leveraging AI, governments can enhance revenue collection efficiency while minimizing compliance burdens on taxpayers. In financial regulation, AI technologies play a crucial role in monitoring and enforcing compliance with complex regulatory frameworks. With the exponential growth of financial transactions and the increasing sophistication of financial instruments, traditional regulatory mechanisms often struggle to keep pace. AI systems equipped with natural language processing capabilities can sift through immense volumes of regulatory documents and financial data to identify potential violations and assess systemic risks. Moreover, AI-based risk assessment models enable regulators to proactively identify emerging threats to financial stability, thereby facilitating timely interventions to prevent crises. However, the integration of AI in tax compliance and financial regulation also presents challenges and ethical considerations. The reliance on algorithmic decision-making raises concerns regarding transparency, accountability, and bias mitigation. Moreover, the proliferation of AI-driven solutions may exacerbate existing socio-economic disparities, as access to advanced technology remains uneven across jurisdictions and economic strata. While AI holds immense promise for enhancing tax compliance and financial regulation, its implementation must be accompanied by robust governance frameworks and ethical guidelines. Collaborative efforts between policymakers, regulators, and technology developers are essential to harnessing the full potential of AI while safeguarding against unintended consequences. Through responsible deployment and continuous refinement, AI can serve as a powerful tool in promoting fiscal transparency, regulatory effectiveness, and economic resilience.
 Keywords: Artificial Intelligence, Tax, Financial, Compliance, Regulation, Review.

Mono-amino acid linkers enable highly potent small molecule-drug conjugates by conditional release

The endosome cleavable linkers have been widely employed by antibody-drug conjugates and small molecule-drug conjugates (SMDCs) to control the accurate release of payloads. An effective linker should provide stability in systemic circulation but efficient payload release at its targeted tumor sites. This conflicting requirement always leads to linker design with increasing structural complexity. Balance of the effectiveness and structural complexity presents a linker design challenge. Here, we explored the possibility of mono-amino acid as so far the simplest cleavable linker (X-linker) for SMDC-based auristatin delivery. Within a diverse set of X-linkers, the SMDCs differed widely in bioactivity, with one (Asn-linker) having significantly improved potency (IC50= 0.1nM) and fast response to endosomal cathepsin B cleavage. Notably, this SMDC, once grafted with effector protein fragment crystallizable (Fc), demonstrated a profound invivo therapeutic effect in aspects of targetability, circulation half-life (t1/2= 73 h), stability, and anti-tumor efficacy. On the basis of these results, we believe that this mono-amino acid linker, together with the new SMDC-Fc scaffold, has significant potential in targeted delivery application.

Metal-Organic Framework-Based Composites for the Adsorption Removal of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances from Water.

The increasing health risks posed by per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in the environment highlight the importance of implementing effective removal techniques. Conventional wastewater treatment processes are inadequate for removing persistent organic pollutants. Recent studies have increasingly demonstrated that metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are capable of removing PFASs from water through adsorption techniques. However, there is still constructive discussion on the potential of MOFs in adsorbing and removing PFASs for large-scale engineering applications. This review systematically investigates the use of MOFs as adsorbents for the removal of PFAS in water treatment. This primarily involved a comprehensive analysis of existing literature to understand the adsorption mechanisms of MOFs and to identify factors that enhance their efficiency in removing PFASs. We also explore the critical aspects of regeneration and stability of MOFs, assessing their reusability and long-term performance, which are essential for large-scale water treatment applications. Finally, our study highlights the challenges of removing PFASs using MOFs. Especially, the efficient removal of short-chain PFASs with hydrophilicity is a major challenge, while medium- to long-chain PFASs are frequently susceptible to being captured from water by MOFs through multiple synergistic effects. The ion-exchange force may be the key to solving this difficulty, but its susceptibility to ion interference in water needs to be addressed in practical applications. We hope that this review can provide valuable insights into the effective removal and adsorption mechanisms of PFASs as well as advance the sustainable utilization of MOFs in the field of water treatment, thereby presenting a novel perspective.

Stability aspects of an LRS Bianchi type-I cosmological model in f(Q) gravity

Stability aspects of an LRS Bianchi type-I cosmological model in f(Q) gravity

Composition and oxidative stability of silflower (Silphium integrifolium) seed oil and its potential as a new source of squalene

AbstractSilphium integrifolium Michx. (silflower), a perennial plant, is of great interest as a potential new oilseed crop due to its long, strong, deep, extensive root systems, which can prevent erosion, capture dissolved nitrogen, and out‐compete weeds eliminating the need for frequent irrigation and herbicide uses. In this study, oil was extracted from unhulled silflower seeds, and its composition and oxidative stability were evaluated. The oil content in unhulled silflower seeds was 15.2% (wt/wt), and its fatty acid composition was similar to that of sunflower oil. The level of total polar compounds (TPC) in the oil was 12.3% (wt/wt), and the content of total phenolics was 1.12 mg gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/g oil. Noteworthily, 4.89% squalene was isolated from silflower oil indicating its potential application as an alternative source of squalene. Silflower oil had lower oxidative stability as indicated by the oxidative stability index (OSI) at 110°C and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), presumably due to its high level of chlorophyll (1002.8 mg/kg). Even after a typical refining process involving degumming, alkali refining, and bleaching with Fuller's earth, silflower oil contained 725.5 mg/kg chlorophyll, and its oxidative stability was not improved. Further treatments with bleaching agents including bentonite, sepiolite, and Tonsil® lowered the chlorophyll level to 4.2, 474.5, and 38.5 mg/kg, respectively, and some aspects of oxidative stability were improved and better than those of refined sunflower oil. This study presents the potential of silflower oil as new edible oil and a great plant source of squalene.

5-methylcytosine RNA modification regulators-based patterns and features of immune microenvironment in acute myeloid leukemia.

Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is a highly heterogeneous malignant disease of the blood cell. The current therapies for AML are unsatisfactory and the molecular mechanisms underlying AML are unclear. 5-methylcytosine (m5C) is an important posttranscriptional modification of mRNA, and is involved in the regulation of mRNA stability, translation, and other aspects of RNA metabolism. However, based on our knowledge of published literature, the role of the m5C regulators has not been explored in AML till date. In this study, we clarified the expression and gene variants of m5C regulators in AML and found that most m5C regulators were differentially expressed and correlated with disease prognosis. We also found that the methylation status of certain m5C regulators (e.g., DNMT3A, DNMT3B) affects the survival of AML patients. Two m5C modification subtypes, and high- and low-risk subgroups identified based on the expression of m5C regulators showed significant differences in the prognosis as well as immune cell infiltration. In addition, most of the m5C regulators were found to be correlated with miRNA expression in AML, as well as IC50 values of many drugs. The miRNA and GSVA analysis were used to identify the different miRNAs and KEGG or hallmark pathways between high- and low-risk subgroups. We also built a prognostic model based on m5C regulators, which was validated by two GSE databases. To verify the reliability of our analysis and conclusions, qPCR was used to identify the expressions of m5C regulators between normal and AML. In summary, we comprehensively explored the molecular characteristics of m5C regulators and built a prognostic model in AML. We proposed new mechanistic insights into the role of m5C in multiple databases and clinical data, which may pave novel ways for the development of therapeutic strategies.

Urban Building Energy Modeling to Support Climate-Sensitive Planning in the Suburban Areas of Santiago de Chile

Greenhouse gas emissions depend on natural and anthropic phenomena; however, to reduce emissions, we can only intervene in terms of anthropic causes. Human activity is very different in various countries and cities. This is mainly due to differences in the type of urban environment, climatic conditions, socioeconomic context, government stability, and other aspects. Urban building energy modeling (UBEM), with a GIS-based approach, allows the evaluation of all the specific characteristics of buildings, population, and urban context that can describe energy use and its spatial distribution within a city. In this paper, a UBEM is developed using the characteristics and consumption of eight typical buildings (archetypes) in the climate zone of Santiago de Chile. The archetype-based UBEM is then applied to the commune of Renca, a critical suburb of Santiago, with the use of QGIS to analyze the energy demand for space heating and the potential for energy saving after four retrofitting interventions. Knowing the costs of the retrofitting interventions and the energy price, the simple payback time was evaluated with the reduction in GHG emissions. Starting from the actual building stock, the results show that the most effective retrofitting intervention for the commune of Renca is the thermal insulation of walls and roofs; due to the type of dwellings, this particular intervention could be more convenient if associated with the installation of solar technologies. This methodology can be replicated with the data used by urban planners and public administrations available for many Chilean cities and in other countries.

Simulation system of intelligent photovoltaic grid-connected inverter considering fuzzy PI control

The grid connected inverter is the core component of the photovoltaic grid connected power generation system, which mainly converts the direct current of the photovoltaic matrix into alternating current that meets the grid connected requirements, playing a key role in the efficient and stable operation of the photovoltaic grid connected power generation system.This paper uses fuzzy PI control model which to improve the performance of intelligent photovoltaic grid-connected inverter to simulate the intelligent photovoltaic inverter system, using mathematical analysis and reasoning methods for model analysis,adopts two-stage three-phase LCL grid-connected inverter, establishes mathematical models in two-phase synchronous rotating and two-phase static coordinate systems, and adopts an active damping strategy based on grid-connected current. Based on existing research and empirical analysis,aiming at the disadvantage of poor dynamic response of repetitive control, an improved repetitive control strategy is adopted, and the controller is analyzed from two aspects of stability and dynamic performance, and the simulation model of photovoltaic grid-connected power generation system is built. Use experimental analysis method to verify the effectiveness of the model in this article,The experimental results show that the simulation system of intelligent photovoltaic grid-connected inverter considering fuzzy PI control proposed in this paper has certain effects.

Identifying the nexus between financial stability and economic growth: the role of stability indicators

PurposeThis study aims to examine the interrelationship between financial stability and economic growth with a comprehensive analysis.Design/methodology/approachThe panel Granger causality testing approach is carried out to the panels of the Fragile Five (F5) and the Group of Seven (G7) countries for the period 1998–2020. To capture the different aspects of financial stability the authors use eight different indicators.FindingsThe findings reveal some important implications: the relationship between financial stability and economic growth is sensitive to the financial stability indicators for both the F5 and G7 countries. The stability indicators related to the credit market contain much more causality relationship with economic growth than the indicators related to the stock market. Z-score and provisions to nonperforming loans (NPLs) are among the two variables with the highest causality relationship with economic growth. The least number of causality link is found for the Regulatory Capital Ratio and Stock Price Volatility in F5 countries and Credit Ratio, NPLs and Stock Price Volatility in G7 countries. Economic growth affects financial stability through credit market stability indicators and mostly for the F5 countries. No causal relationship is found for any of the financial stability indicators of Canada, the UK and the USA from economic growth to financial stability.Originality/valueSince the linkages between financial stability and economic growth may vary due to country/group specific differences, apart from the previous studies, the authors select two different groups of countries in terms of financial stability and economic size.

Analyzing stability and structural aspects of embedded fuzzy type 2 PID controller for robot manipulators

This study delves into the development and analysis of a novel Embedded Fuzzy Type 2 PID Controller for Robot Manipulators, motivated by the increasing need for enhanced control systems in robotic applications to improve precision and stability. In the background section, the limitations of conventional PID controllers in addressing uncertainties and disturbances, especially in complex tasks performed by robot manipulators, are presented. The concept of fuzzy logic and the Type 2 fuzzy system is introduced, highlighting their potential to manage imprecise and uncertain information. Through rigorous analysis and simulation, the superior performance of the Embedded Fuzzy Type 2 PID Controller is demonstrated when compared to traditional PID controllers and even Type 1 fuzzy controllers. The results showcase enhanced tracking accuracy, disturbance rejection, and adaptability, making it a promising solution for advanced robotic applications. In conclusion, this research provides a robust solution for improving the control of robot manipulators in uncertain and dynamic environments. The Embedded Fuzzy Type 2 PID Controller offers a new paradigm in control theory, ensuring stability and precision even in the face of unpredictable factors. This innovation holds great promise for advancing the capabilities of robotic systems and underlines the potential for further research in embedded fuzzy control systems.

Simultaneous Assessment of Multiple Aspects of Stability of Power Systems With Renewable Generation

Modern power systems are operating much closer to stability limits due to the integration of uncertain Renewable Energy Sources (RES)-based generations and the decommissioning of traditional synchronous generations. Hence, different aspects of power system stability assessment have come into research focus again. Conventional system stability assessment typically uses dedicated stability indices describing a single aspect of system stability (e.g., voltage, frequency, angularity) or composite indices developed for one aspect of system stability. Such assessments can be ambiguous as the impacts of new devices and technologies on different aspects of system stability can be both, positive and negative to different extents. This paper introduces a probabilistic framework and two composite stability indices for the simultaneous assessment of multiple aspects of power system stability. The application of the indices is demonstrated on a range of case studies with modified IEEE 9-bus and modified IEEE 68-bus test systems without/with RES in a mixed Matlab and DigSilent PowerFactory simulation environment.

Роль приграничных муниципальных образований в обеспечении экономической безопасности региона (на материалах Сибирского федерального округа)

The article explores the role of border municipalities in contributing to the economic stability of Siberian regions. It analyses the current mechanisms of state control over border municipalities and summarises scientific approaches to understanding their situation. Additionally, it identifies indicators of economic stability at the municipal level. Based on data from five regions within the Siberian Federal District - the Omsk and Novosibirsk Regions, the Altai Territory, and the Republics of Altay and Tyva - the research conducted a comparative analysis of economic stability in their municipal and urban areas. The study identified vulnerable aspects of economic stability for local communities and assessed their influence on the development of the region as a whole. The article discusses the potential and tools for the impact of regulatory measures in the region on the development of local communities. It compares the economic efficiency indicators of neighboring municipalities and regions and reveals a significant difference in the indicators for border municipalities compared to the average regional values. The research findings can be used to develop a strategic policy for the district's development in the area of integrated development for border regions and constituent municipalities. Based on the research, the author concludes that a unified state policy is needed to ensure the economic stability of Siberia's border municipalities, and identifies some possible directions for implementing such a policy.

Two-dimensional Be2P4 as a promising thermoelectric material and anode for Na/K-ion batteries.

Incredibly effective and flexible energy conversion and storage systems hold great promise for portable self-powered electronic devices. Owing to their large surface area, exceptional atomic structures, superior electrical conductivity and good mechanical flexibility, two-dimensional (2D) materials are recognized as an attractive option for energy conversion and storage application. In this work, we examined the stability, electronic, thermoelectric and electrochemical aspects of a novel 2D Be2P4 monolayer by adopting density functional theory (DFT). The Be2P4 monolayer exhibits a direct semiconductor gap of 0.9 eV (HSE06), large Young's modulus (∼198 GPa), high carrier mobility (∼104 cm2 V-1 s-1) and a low excitonic binding energy of 0.11 eV. Our calculated findings suggest that Be2P4 shows a lattice thermal conductivity of 1.02 W m K-1 at 700 K, resulting in moderate thermoelectric performance (ZT ∼ 0.7), encouraging its use in thermoelectric materials. In addition, a higher adsorption energy of -2.28 eV (-2.52 eV) and less diffusion barrier of 0.22 eV (0.17 eV) for Na(K)-ion batteries promote fast ion transport in the Be2P4 monolayer. This material also shows a high specific capacity and superior energy density of 8460 W h kg-1 (8883 W h kg-1) for Na(K)-ion batteries. Thus, our results offer insightful information for investigating potential thermoelectric and flexible anode materials based on the Be2P4 monolayer.

On the Design of Terminal Ingredients for Linear Time Varying Model Predictive Control: Theory and Experimental Application

The use of Linear Time Varying (LTV) Model Predictive Control (MPC) to stabilize a set of trajectories of a nonlinear system is considered. This technique has been successfully applied in simulations and experiments, but only few contributions investigate stability aspects and the essential involved quantities: the terminal penalty and terminal constraint. Deriving the former is not always thoroughly addressed or it is based on the -rather restrictive- assumption that the whole set of linearized dynamics is quadratically stabilizable. In this article, we propose Linear Matrix Inequality (LMI) conditions to co-design a gain-scheduled auxiliary feedback and Lyapunov function, used to derive offline terminal set conditions and a terminal penalty constraint for an LTV MPC scheme guaranteeing stability and recursive constraint satisfaction. Recent results by the authors are extended to the case of a varying stage cost, such that the controller can be tuned to meet time-varying trade-offs between tracking accuracy and input activity. The approach is demonstrated in embedded hardware running on a CrazyFlie drone.

A Comparison of Digital Constant On-Time and Variable On-Time Control in Buck/Buck-Boost PFC Converter

This study compares two frequently used control strategies in the context of completely digitally controlled critical conduction mode (CRM) buck/buck-boost converters, namely constant on-time (COT) and variable on-time (VOT). The aim of this research is to compare and assess the performance of different control systems in terms of power factor (PF) and total harmonic distortion (THD). The COT control technique employs a fixed on-time period for each switching cycle, resulting in a predictable and straightforward control scheme. On the other hand, VOT control dynamically adapts the on-time period based on the input and output voltage conditions, offering potential advantages in terms of load regulation and stability. The analysis results provide valuable insights into the strengths and limitations of each control technique. Additionally, the dynamic behavior of the converters under various operating conditions is investigated, shedding light on the stability and robustness aspects of each control scheme. The study is conducted using a fully digital setup and evaluated in Matlab/Simulink environment. The findings show that VOT control outperforms COT in terms of THD and PF under steady-state conditions. These findings offer valuable guidance for selecting the appropriate control technique for PFC converters, depending on specific requirements of their applications.

Simultaneous Determination of Two Metabolites of Gelsemium elegans by LC-MS/MS in Rat Urine and its Application to Pharmacokinetic Study

Background: G. elegans is a highly useful medicinal plant with broad and superior clinical pharmacological effects. However, it also exhibits high toxicity to humans, so it must be used with extreme caution in clinical practice. Previous studies on G. elegans have mainly focused on its main ingredients from perspectives of pharmaceutical analysis, pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamics. The kinetic behavior of G. elegans' main metabolites in vivo has not yet been reported, which is also crucial for studying the herb's toxification and detoxification process. Aims: This study aimed to establish a quantitative method to describe the metabolic profile of the two main metabolites of koumine after oral administration of G. elegans to rats. Objective: The objective of this study was to test two major metabolites of G. elegans in rat urine after administration using a rapid and sensitive high-performance liquid chromatographic-tandem mass spectrometric (HPLC-MS/MS) method developed in advance. Methods: A Kromasil C18 column was used as the stationary phase for chromatographic separation, with an isocratic mobile phase consisting of mixture of water (2 mM ammonium formate), formic acid, and methanol (25:0.05:75, v/v/v) at a flow rate of 0.40 mL/min. The mass spectrometer was equipped with an electrospray ionization (ESI) source operating in positive ionization mode, and detection was performed using a selective reaction monitoring (SRM) mode. Detection was performed in selective reaction monitoring (SRM) mode. Protein precipitation was used to pretreat the rat urine samples before analysis, with acetonitrile as the precipitation solvent. In this study, a "relative quantification" strategy was employed, which avoided the expensive and time-consuming separation of standard substances. The assay was validated in terms of specificity, linearity, precision, stability, recovery, and other aspects. Results: The intra- and inter-day precision values were less than 12.7%. The recoveries at three different concentrations were all above 73.1%. The stability study showed that the analytes were stable during the experiment. The method was then used to study the kinetic profiles of N-demethylkoumine and N-oxidatekoumine in rat urine for the first time. Conclusion: In this study, the established LC/MS method was fully validated and proven to be sensitive and accurate for the simultaneous determination of the two main metabolites of G. elegans in rats' urine samples. These results could provide references for the safe use of koumine and G. elegans in clinical applications.

Electrostatic-Dominated Conformational Fluctuations and Transition States of Phase Separation in Charge-Balanced Protein Polymer.

Hydration of the protein/polymer is the most important aspect of stability. It is well-known that salts alter the charged polymer's electrostatic forces, ultimately impacting its conformations in solution. The solvent effects lead to certain conformational fluctuations. Previous studies have shown the screening of electrostatic repulsion within the charge-imbalanced protein following charge inversion owing to counterion condensation and phase separation. This article studies conformation stability and phase separation of charge-balanced gelatin (a protein polymer at the isoelectric point) with the addition of different salts. A phenomenon has been reported where the electrostatic effect of salts results in conformational fluctuations in gelatin due to its insufficient hydrations (termed as starvation), which scales with salt concentration. This article also presents different transition states for charge-balanced proteins prior to phase separation. It is concluded that phase separation of a charge-balanced protein passes through a stable state followed by an unstable transition state, where certain unique interactions with salts occur.